SOLO Taxonomy and the Cognitive Level of Questions: Applications in Teaching EFL

1. Introduction to SOLO Taxonomy and Cognitive Levels

1.1 Definition and Hierarchical Structure of SOLO Taxonomy

The Structure of the Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy, developed by Biggs and Collis (1982), provides a framework for assessing the quality and complexity of student learning outcomes. This taxonomy categorizes cognitive understanding into five hierarchical levels, which signify an ascending order of cognitive complexity and depth of learning. The five levels are: prestructural, unistructural, multistructural, relational, and extended abstract.

At the prestructural level, learners demonstrate a limited or incorrect understanding of the task; responses are often irrelevant or lack significant detail. The unistructural level involves a grasp of one relevant aspect but without broader connections to the whole concept. Multistructural understanding is reflected when learners comprehend several independently relevant aspects but do not integrate them into a coherent whole. The relational level marks a deeper understanding where learners integrate multiple aspects into a unified structure. Finally, the extended abstract level signifies the highest order of thinking, where learners generalize, theorize, or apply their integrated understanding in novel or abstract contexts.

These levels can be broadly subdivided into surface and deep learning categories, with prestructural to multistructural representing surface learning focusing on isolated pieces of information, and relational to extended abstract representing deep learning emphasizing integration and transfer of knowledge [1]. This hierarchical framework provides educators with a clear model for classifying students’ cognitive processes and their responses to learning tasks based on their complexity.

1.2 Comparison with Other Cognitive Taxonomies (e.g., Bloom’s Taxonomy)

Although Bloom’s Taxonomy has been the most widely used cognitive framework in education, the SOLO taxonomy offers a nuanced perspective, particularly in assessing the depth and structure of understanding. Bloom’s taxonomy organizes cognitive processes into hierarchical categories – remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) restructured these into cognitive process dimensions, emphasizing cognitive complexity from simple recall to creation.

A comparative analysis between SOLO and RBT has shown distinct differences in their operationalization and reliability when classifying cognitive levels in assessment questions. A study comparing the reliability of SOLO-based classifications versus RBT-based classifications in social studies assessment questions revealed that SOLO classifications exhibited a higher percentage of variance due to main effects related to questions, and presented greater generalizability and reliability coefficients [2]. This indicates that the SOLO taxonomy may offer a more consistent and robust framework for cognitive level classification in certain educational settings.

However, revised Bloom’s Taxonomy remains widely used and effective, particularly in language learning materials where cognitive processing stages are explicitly considered. For example, in evaluating EFL reading sections in Turkish high school textbooks, analyses discovered a dominance of lower-order cognitive skills based on Bloom’s categories, highlighting a lack in higher-order abilities such as analysis and creation [3]. The study advocates for integration of higher cognitive levels within assessment and instruction to address this gap.

The differing emphasis of the two taxonomies is noteworthy: SOLO is structured around the complexity and integration of knowledge as demonstrated by learner responses, while Bloom’s is oriented around cognitive processes engaged during learning tasks. This complementary nature suggests that educators and researchers may benefit from employing both taxonomies in an integrative manner, selecting according to the purpose of assessment and instructional design.

1.3 Significance in Educational Assessment and Teaching

The SOLO taxonomy is widely recognized as an effective tool for evaluating both formative and summative educational assessments by focusing on the complexity and depth of understanding demonstrated in learner responses. Its explicit levels provide a qualitative framework for assessing how thoroughly students grasp concepts and skills.

In professional training contexts, such as medical education, the SOLO taxonomy has been used to design questions and analyze responses to assess medical teachers’ and students’ cognitive levels. In such settings, it enables educators to tailor training activities that promote higher levels of thinking, moving from simple recall to relational and extended abstract reasoning, thereby enhancing instructional effectiveness and feedback [4]. Similarly, in health care education, blended formative and summative assessment models utilizing SOLO’s levels have demonstrated the ability to provide detailed information about individual learners’ cognitive status while guiding instructional judgments [5].

The key contribution of SOLO lies in enabling educators to identify the precise level at which a learner operates, thus facilitating targeted interventions. It also aids in the creation of assessment tasks that reflect a scaffolded progression of cognitive demand, ensuring that both surface-level knowledge and deep, relational understanding are evaluated. This capacity to gauge the structure and quality of understanding makes SOLO an invaluable cornerstone in educational assessment and teaching strategies.

2. SOLO Taxonomy’s Cognitive Framework in Question Design

2.1 Mapping Question Types to SOLO Levels

Designing questions aligned with SOLO taxonomy levels requires an understanding of the cognitive demands characteristic of each level. Questions targeting prestructural learners might ask for rudimentary recall or identification but are often too simplistic or off-target. Unistructural questions probe a single relevant piece of knowledge or concept, commonly through straightforward factual or definitional prompts. Multistructural questions require responses with multiple facts or ideas but do not necessitate their synthesis.

Relational questions, in contrast, challenge learners to integrate multiple pieces of knowledge, often asking for explanation, interpretation, or relating concepts. Finally, questions at the extended abstract level demand abstraction, generalization, hypothesizing, or application in novel settings, thus invoking the highest cognitive processing.

An analysis of 8th Grade Science lesson outcomes and evaluation questions showed that curricular outcomes and textbook questions often mapped to different SOLO levels. While curricular outcomes spanned all SOLO levels including extended abstract, textbook questions predominantly aligned with uni-structural or multi-structural levels, lacking higher cognitive demands [6]. This discrepancy highlights challenges in designing assessment questions that adequately challenge and measure deeper cognitive processing.

In financial accounting assessment, the SOLO taxonomy was used to classify the cognitive levels of exam questions. Fundamental accounting concepts such as recognition and measurement were mapped against SOLO levels based on the required cognitive complexity. This structured approach allowed objective classification of questions according to their cognitive demand, which is often difficult under other taxonomies due to ambiguity in verb usage [7]. These applications illustrate the practicability of SOLO in diverse educational contexts for precise question design and classification.

2.2 Benefits of Using SOLO to Structure Cognitive Demands

Using SOLO taxonomy in question design provides enhanced clarity and scaffolding in assessing conceptual understanding. By constructing questions explicitly aligned with SOLO levels, educators can systematically evaluate the progression in a learner’s cognitive engagement, from isolated information recall to integrative and abstract reasoning. This facilitates a clearer understanding of student strengths and weaknesses.

Studies applying SOLO in English reading tasks demonstrated significant improvements in students’ critical thinking and higher-order thinking skills. For instance, a quasi-experimental study with Grade 7 students revealed that the use of SOLO-based questioning strategies led to notable proficiency gains, especially at relational and extended abstract levels. Such structured cognitive progression supports metacognitive awareness and fosters deeper reading comprehension [8].

Moreover, SOLO provides a framework to assess multiple cognitive dimensions simultaneously, as demonstrated in advanced quantifications combining SOLO and a reinterpreted Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. Visualization tools such as radar charts have been developed to analyze assessments across multiple cognitive dimensions, thereby offering a more nuanced measurement of both breadth and depth of cognitive engagement in tasks [9]. The ability of SOLO to foster scaffolding and provide nuanced insights into cognitive demands underscores its value in educational design and assessment.

2.3 Challenges and Limitations in Application

Despite its advantages, implementing the SOLO taxonomy in question formulation presents some challenges. One notable difficulty lies in crafting questions that effectively represent higher-order thinking without ambiguity or superficiality. In EFL reading contexts, for example, analyses show that many tasks focus on memory and surface comprehension, with infrequent engagement of analysis, evaluation, or creation. This hinders comprehensive assessment of learners’ higher cognitive skills [3].

Further, cultural and contextual factors have been observed to influence taxonomy effectiveness. Teachers and curriculum developers may have varying levels of familiarity and comfort with SOLO, affecting how well it is implemented. For instance, novice teachers might struggle to formulate questions targeting relational or extended abstract levels. Limitations in available instructional materials sensitive to higher cognitive demands may also restrict the application of SOLO [10]. Similarly, pre-service teachers have been documented to struggle with preparing questions for upper-level cognitive categories, emphasizing the need for specialized training [11].

Therefore, while SOLO taxonomy offers a robust framework, effective application demands professional support, adequate resources, and sensitivity to contextual factors to realize its full potential in instructional design.

3. Application of SOLO Taxonomy in EFL Teaching Contexts

3.1 SOLO-based Assessment of Reading Comprehension in EFL

The advancement of reading comprehension in EFL learners can be significantly supported by the implementation of SOLO-based assessment methods. By calibrating reading tasks according to SOLO levels, instructors create opportunities for fostering critical thinking and cognitive complexity in linguistic processing.

Empirical research with junior high school students in Indonesia demonstrated that SOLO-aligned reading tasks, integrated with specific questioning strategies, produced substantial gains in students’ reading comprehension proficiency. These gains were particularly notable at the relational and extended abstract stages, indicating enhanced critical thinking [8]. Complementing these results, an analysis of Turkish EFL textbooks identified shortcomings in higher-level cognitive demands in reading sections, underscoring the need for deliberate inclusion of tasks that mobilize analysis, synthesis, and evaluation [3].

By strategically embedding SOLO-based reading assessments, EFL educators can encourage learners to engage beyond literal comprehension, promoting thoughtful interaction with texts, thus reinforcing both language skills and cognitive development.

3.2 Disciplinary Literacy and Language Skills Development Using SOLO

Disciplinary literacy in STEM subjects offers a specific challenge for EFL learners, as mastering subject-specific language and cognitive skills simultaneously is demanding. The SOLO taxonomy has been leveraged as an evaluative tool to track the development of disciplinary literacy skills within integrated STEM-astronomy courses taught in English as a foreign language.

In a trial using a digital storytelling augmentation, adolescent EFL students’ written responses showcased positive advancements across SOLO levels, indicating effective development of disciplinary literacy through blended instructional approaches [12]. This study underlined how blended pedagogical strategies incorporating technology and SOLO-aligned assessment can bridge gaps between language proficiency and content mastery.

Further, digital storytelling has been applied to enhance disciplinary literacy and critical thinking in STEM education for EFL learners by encouraging narrative construction and reflective learning. Such innovative integration fosters higher cognitive processing as framed by SOLO, resulting in improved engagement and understanding [13].

3.3 Enhancing Speaking and Writing through SOLO-Based Instruction

Beyond reading, the SOLO taxonomy offers a valuable lens for structuring instruction in EFL productive skills, including speaking and writing. The taxonomy’s cognitive framework allows teachers to scaffold discourse and composition tasks to progressively challenge students’ linguistic and cognitive abilities.

For example, discourse teaching at the primary school level has been designed using SOLO taxonomy to move learners from basic text decoding to more complex literacy skills, fostering emotional and cognitive growth simultaneously [14]. Mobile learning applications in junior high schools have also incorporated SOLO rubrics to infuse critical thinking explicitly into language activities, demonstrating positive effects on learner engagement and cognitive skill development, particularly during contexts like the COVID-19 pandemic [15].

These applications reveal how SOLO taxonomy-guided strategies enhance learner autonomy, promote metacognitive skills, and support incremental mastery of higher-order language functions in speaking and writing.

4. Teaching Strategies and Curriculum Design Aligned with SOLO

4.1 Designing Multi-text and Integrated Reading Lessons Using SOLO

A central application of SOLO taxonomy in teaching lies in curriculum and lesson design that promotes active cognitive development. Multi-text reading pedagogies, guided by SOLO principles, address common challenges in senior high school English classrooms, such as stepwise instruction and insufficient student innovation.

By designing reading classes around SOLO cognitive levels, educators can evaluate teaching effectiveness and align learning activities with targeted cognitive objectives, facilitating the integration of teaching, learning, and assessment. Empirical cases from senior high school English programs demonstrate how this approach fosters student creative thinking and deep engagement with texts [16].

Furthermore, setting evaluation standards for English reading teaching based on SOLO taxonomy has enabled the creation of clear, hierarchical criteria, aiding teachers in accurately assessing student performance and promoting continuous improvement [17]. These holistic structures strengthen the instructional framework and encourage learners’ cognitive advancement.

4.2 Curriculum Evaluation Based on SOLO Framework

The SOLO taxonomy serves as a critical analytic tool to evaluate national curricula and textbooks for cognitive demand and alignment with learning outcomes. For example, analyses of Turkish mother-tongue teaching curricula over several decades revealed progressive increases in relational and extended abstract reading outcomes, although extended abstract levels remain underrepresented [18].

Similarly, document analyses of science curricula and textbook evaluation questions using SOLO levels exposed a predominance of lower cognitive level questions, with a significant absence of extended abstract questioning in textbooks [6]. Identifying such gaps enables curriculum developers and policymakers to refine learning outcomes and assessment strategies explicitly targeting higher-order thinking skills.

4.3 Teacher Professional Development and SOLO Taxonomy

Incorporating SOLO taxonomy in teacher professional development is essential for its successful pedagogical application. Medical educators, for instance, have benefited from training that uses SOLO as a framework for assessing understanding, resulting in improved teaching strategies that emphasize cognitive complexity and personalized feedback [4].

Similarly, language education benefits when teachers understand and apply frameworks like SOLO taxonomy within broader models such as Biggs’ constructive alignment. This enables instructors to link intended learning outcomes, teaching activities, and assessments coherently, fostering positive learning environments and improved student academic outcomes [19].

Ongoing teacher education focused on SOLO principles can empower educators to create more effective, cognitively engaging lessons and assessments.

5. Empirical Studies Demonstrating SOLO’s Impact in EFL Settings

5.1 Quasi-Experimental Studies on SOLO-Based Instruction

Quantitative research within EFL settings underscores the positive impact of SOLO-based instructional design. A notable example comes from a quasi-experimental study comparing Grade 7 students who received SOLO-integrated reading instruction to a control group exposed to conventional methods. The experimental group exhibited significant gains, particularly at higher SOLO levels such as relational and extended abstract, whereas the control group’s performance remained comparatively static [8].

Additionally, mobile learning applications designed to develop critical thinking through SOLO-based rubrics have shown to enhance student performance and engagement, reinforcing the value of SOLO-aligned instruction in technologically mediated environments [15].

5.2 Evaluation of Student Cognitive Levels in EFL Assessments

Case studies analyzing EFL students’ cognitive structures through SOLO coding often reveal predominant surface-level thinking, with a smaller proportion reaching deep understanding. For instance, in studies assessing student responses to authentic topics such as SARS-CoV-2 airborne transmission, the majority of learners operated at prestructural or unistructural levels, with minority representation at relational and extended abstract levels [20].

Similarly, assessments of critical thinking in elementary-level international baccalaureate students demonstrated that higher-order thinking skills are attainable but require instructional focus, as evident in SOLO-based evaluation scores tracking progression from surface to deep learning [21]. These findings highlight the ongoing pedagogical challenge of elevating learners to higher cognitive planes in EFL contexts.

5.3 Use of SOLO in Digital and Mobile Learning Environments

Technology-enhanced learning environments offer promising platforms to integrate SOLO taxonomy in language instruction. The use of mobile applications aligned with SOLO taxonomic criteria has been associated with improved critical thinking and self-regulated learning outcomes. Such applications, evaluated through mixed-method designs, show statistically significant improvement in EFL learners’ development of higher cognitive skills and language sub-skills [15].

Moreover, gamification strategies based on SOLO taxonomy aim to actively engage learner participation and discipline in English learning contexts, albeit with technological infrastructure challenges that can affect consistent learner performance [22]. These innovative blends of technology and SOLO taxonomy offer new avenues for advancing language learning effectiveness.

6. Assessment Instruments and Rubrics Based on SOLO Taxonomy

6.1 Development and Validation of SOLO-Based Assessment Instruments

The creation of reliable and valid assessment instruments based on SOLO taxonomy enhances measurement precision of learner cognitive levels. Research developing SOLO taxonomy-based instruments for biological topics, such as the human respiratory system, demonstrated high validity and reliability in capturing students’ thinking skills and mastery of concepts [23]. Similar developments in applied mathematics have produced rubrics with strong interrater reliability capable of differentiating levels of conceptual understanding and identifying reasoning gaps among undergraduates [24].

These validated instruments provide educators with practical tools to assess learning outcomes that incorporate both conceptual mastery and cognitive complexity.

6.2 Rubrics for Grading EFL Responses at Various SOLO Levels

In EFL contexts, rubrics designed around the SOLO taxonomy enable objective grading of responses according to clearly defined cognitive criteria. Such rubrics differentiate surface learning manifestations (e.g., listing, recalling) from deep understanding (e.g., relational integration, abstract generalization), facilitating consistent and transparent assessment.

Applied reading tasks using SOLO-aligned rubrics reveal significant gains following instruction, documenting improvements in cognitive level attainment and metacognitive reflection [8]. Further, case studies in primary discourse teaching show how SOLO-based rubrics can effectively evaluate critical thinking and communication skills in student outputs [21].

6.3 Blending SOLO with Other Frameworks for Comprehensive Evaluation

To enhance assessment quality, instructional researchers have integrated SOLO taxonomy with complementary frameworks such as Bloom’s taxonomy and formative/summative assessment models. For instance, blended assessments in healthcare education use SOLO levels to provide feedback and make summative judgments, generating holistic insights into learner cognitive development [5].

Similarly, in financial accounting education, combining topic-specific concepts with SOLO levels enables rigorous cognitive demand evaluation that goes beyond verb-based Bloom classifications [7]. These blended frameworks contribute to more nuanced, actionable assessments that inform teaching and learning improvements.

7. Cognitive Development and Higher-Order Thinking in EFL using SOLO

7.1 Promoting Metacognition and Deep Learning through SOLO-Based Tasks

SOLO taxonomy’s emphasis on hierarchical cognitive complexity naturally supports the development of metacognitive skills and deeper learning strategies. Tasks designed to engage learners at relational and extended abstract levels encourage reflection, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, fostering autonomous and thoughtful learners.

In reading instruction, approaches employing SOLO-aligned materials promote the assembly, articulation, and evaluation of knowledge, vital for critical thinking and meaningful engagement [8]. Discussions have highlighted the systematic incorporation of open-ended questions and collaborative assignments as effective strategies to stimulate such cognitive development [3].

These pedagogical practices harness SOLO taxonomy’s structure to scaffold learners from surface comprehension to deep, metacognitive engagement.

7.2 Analysis of Cognitive Levels in Student Responses and Misconceptions

Assessment of student responses through the SOLO lens often reveals prevalent misconceptions and cognitive obstacles in EFL learning. For example, studies on probability understanding in mathematics, though not strictly language learning, illustrate the broader educational challenges in fostering higher-order thinking. Learners frequently demonstrate equiprobability bias and other misconceptions despite some evidence of basic principle use, underscoring the need for taxonomy-guided instruction to address gaps [25].

Similarly, in EFL statistical concept learning, pre-service teachers’ reliance on algorithmic processes over conceptual understanding exemplifies a common cognitive limitation that structured teaching must remedy. These learners predominantly exhibit lower SOLO levels in understanding concepts such as arithmetic mean, indicating instructional intervention needs [26].

Targeted instructional strategies informed by taxonomy-based assessments can more effectively diagnose and remedy such learning obstacles.

7.3 Linking Cognitive Complexity to Language Proficiency Outcomes

Research reveals that cognitive depth, as classified by SOLO taxonomy, correlates with enhanced language proficiency outcomes. Tasks demanding higher-order thinking not only develop conceptual understanding but also enrich language skills by encouraging elaborate expressions, critique, and synthesis.

Analyses of EFL reading curricula and assessment materials confirm the positive association between increased presence of relational and extended abstract cognitive levels and improved language learning results [3]. The identification of cognitive skill gaps in textbooks and assessments provides critical impetus for curriculum revision, emphasizing cognitive complexity as integral to language proficiency development [6].

Such evidence highlights the necessity for alignment between cognitive frameworks and language teaching objectives to cultivate comprehensive language competency.

8. Technological and Innovative Approaches Integrating SOLO Taxonomy

8.1 Use of Digital Storytelling and Online Tools for SOLO-Based Learning

Digital storytelling and multimedia platforms have been employed to enhance disciplinary literacy and critical thinking for EFL learners, with positive outcomes mapped through SOLO taxonomy. These technological innovations create rich, interactive learning environments that encourage students to construct knowledge narratives and engage deeply with content.

Empirical studies in STEM-astronomy contexts demonstrated that digital storytelling interventions produced measurable gains in SOLO-coded disciplinary literacy levels among adolescent EFL students, bridging gaps between language and content learning [12], [13]. These modes complement traditional instruction by facilitating higher-level cognitive engagement within authentic communicative settings.

8.2 Robotics and Programming Assessments Using SOLO

Educational robotics and programming platforms, such as Scratch and Thymio-II, have been explored to assess computational thinking and cognitive levels based on SOLO taxonomy. The evaluation of command structuring and data representation tasks revealed the feasibility of mapping programming complexity to SOLO levels, providing rich information about learner understanding and mastery [27], [28].

Despite challenges in developing appropriate assessment tools, studies indicate that young learners, including EFL students, can achieve varying degrees of cognitive complexity in programming tasks, ranging from unistructural understanding to multistructural application [29]. This intersection exemplifies the versatility of the SOLO framework in emerging interdisciplinary and technological disciplines.

8.3 AI and Automated Cognitive Complexity Assessment Systems

Innovative integration of SOLO taxonomy with reinterpreted Bloom’s Taxonomy in AI-enhanced educational assessment tools promises to revolutionize how cognitive complexity is quantified and visualized. By developing radar chart visualizations that represent the breadth and depth of cognitive skills engaged in assessment tasks, these models provide systematic and standardized methods to evaluate authentic student learning amidst the challenges posed by generative AI [9].

Additionally, chatbot systems designed to assist educators in crafting balanced and taxonomy-aligned assessment papers utilize cognitive level frameworks like Bloom’s and SOLO to ensure comprehensive coverage of cognitive demands [30]. These technological advancements facilitate more nuanced, efficient assessment design and feedback, offering scalability and precision in educational evaluation.

9. Case Studies and Specific Examples of SOLO in EFL Teaching

9.1 Multi-Text Reading in High School Contexts Using SOLO

Case studies on senior high school English reading instruction demonstrate the viable use of SOLO taxonomy in designing multi-text reading lessons aimed at cultivating hierarchical cognitive skills. By targeting specific cognitive objectives aligned with SOLO levels, these lessons foster scaffolded learning progression and active student engagement [16].

Evaluation frameworks developed for such teaching approaches provide replicable models that enhance teaching effectiveness, assessment validity, and student metacognitive awareness in EFL contexts [17].

9.2 Assessment of Student Discourse and Critical Thinking

In primary educational settings, the SOLO taxonomy has been applied to discourse teaching to develop students’ communication and critical thinking skills effectively. Frameworks that incorporate SOLO levels into discussion board assessments enable educators to evaluate content understanding and language proficiency jointly, facilitating integrated literacy development [14], [21].

These approaches demonstrate how SOLO-informed assessment fosters both language and cognitive engagement, essential for holistic EFL education from early stages.

9.3 Evaluation of Classroom Question Types and Cognitive Levels

Analysis of textbook and teacher-designed assessment questions using SOLO taxonomy often reveals deficits in challenging learners with higher cognitive levels, affecting the development of critical thinking. Investigations into 8th-grade science questions showed an imbalance favoring lower levels, with absent or sparse extended abstract questions in textbooks [6].

Similar evaluations in EFL reading materials corroborate these findings, emphasizing the importance of revising assessment tools to better align with advanced cognitive categorizations and learning objectives [3]. Addressing these gaps is crucial for fostering deeper learning and critical thinking skills.

10. Conclusions and Recommendations for EFL Educators

10.1 Summary of SOLO Taxonomy’s Role in Enhancing Cognitive Assessment

The evidence presented affirms that the SOLO taxonomy is a valuable framework for enhancing cognitive assessment in EFL contexts. Its hierarchical structure offers clear guidance for designing, implementing, and evaluating learning tasks that address varying cognitive demands, fostering a shift from surface learning to deep, integrative understanding [1].

By enabling precise categorization of student responses and instructional materials, SOLO taxonomy facilitates improved alignment between teaching, learning, and assessment, ultimately contributing to enhanced language proficiency and critical thinking [8].

10.2 Best Practices for Implementing SOLO in EFL Curriculum and Instruction

Effective implementation of the SOLO taxonomy requires concerted efforts in curriculum design, teacher professional development, and instructional planning. Educators should be trained to formulate assessment questions and tasks aligned with all SOLO levels, particularly focusing on fostering relational and extended abstract thinking [4].

Curricula must integrate SOLO principles to ensure progression from surface knowledge to higher-order cognitive skills, and resources should support scaffolded teaching strategies. Embedding SOLO taxonomy within broader models such as constructive alignment strengthens educational coherence and effectiveness [19].

10.3 Future Research Directions and Innovations

Future research should explore advanced methodologies integrating SOLO taxonomy with emergent technologies and AI-enhanced educational models to improve assessment accuracy and instructional responsiveness. The development of automated, systematic assessment tools that map cognitive complexity offers significant promise [9].

Additionally, expanding SOLO taxonomy applications in diverse disciplinary and cultural contexts, such as computational thinking in teacher education, will enrich our understanding and utilization of the framework in rapidly evolving educational landscapes [31].

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