Economic Inequalities in Manipur

Overview of Economic Disparities

Geographical and Regional Divide

Manipur's economic landscape is significantly shaped by its geographical division into valley and hill districts, which contributes to unequal development [1]. The state is characterized by a central valley surrounded by hills, leading to distinct socio-economic realities in these regions. This division has resulted in disparities in infrastructure, access to basic services, and overall economic opportunities, creating a clear divide in the quality of life experienced by residents in different areas. The geographical constraints of the hilly regions pose challenges to development, hindering the provision of essential services and limiting economic activities.

Hilly districts often lack basic infrastructure such as healthcare facilities, educational institutions, a robust public distribution system, and adequate transportation networks, especially when compared to the valley regions [1]. The difficult terrain and remoteness of these areas make it challenging to establish and maintain essential infrastructure, leading to a cycle of underdevelopment. Limited access to healthcare services results in poorer health outcomes, while inadequate educational facilities hinder human capital development. The absence of a well-functioning public distribution system exacerbates food insecurity, and poor transportation limits economic opportunities and access to markets.

Disparities in access to maternal healthcare services between the hill and valley regions further highlight the geographical inequality prevalent in Manipur [1]. Studies indicate that pregnant women in hilly areas have significantly lower access to antenatal care, institutional delivery services, and postnatal care compared to their counterparts in the valley. This disparity is attributed to a combination of factors, including the lack of healthcare facilities, the difficult terrain, and socio-cultural barriers that limit access to available services. Addressing these inequalities requires targeted interventions that focus on improving healthcare infrastructure in hilly regions, promoting awareness about maternal health services, and overcoming socio-cultural barriers that hinder access.

Urban-Rural Divide

While urban poverty rates in India have been declining due to economic reforms, industrialization, and various government initiatives, significant disparities persist among states, including Manipur [2]. Despite the overall reduction in poverty, Manipur continues to experience high urban poverty rates compared to other states, reflecting the uneven distribution of economic benefits. The state's urban centers struggle with issues such as unemployment, inadequate housing, and limited access to basic services, contributing to the persistence of poverty in these areas. Addressing urban poverty in Manipur requires targeted interventions that focus on creating employment opportunities, improving access to affordable housing, and providing essential services to vulnerable populations.

Urban areas in Manipur exhibit higher concentrations of deprived people, contrasting traditional expectations of rural deprivation [3]. Unlike the conventional understanding that deprivation is more prevalent in remote rural areas, studies have revealed a higher concentration of deprived individuals in Manipur's urban centers. This phenomenon is attributed to factors such as migration from rural areas in search of better opportunities, the high cost of living in urban centers, and the limited availability of affordable housing and basic services. Addressing urban deprivation requires a comprehensive approach that considers the unique challenges faced by urban populations, including access to employment, housing, and essential services.

Improved living conditions in urban areas, such as better transport, healthcare, and education, coexist with rising lifestyle diseases [4]. While urban areas in Manipur offer certain advantages in terms of infrastructure and access to services, they also face challenges related to changing lifestyles and dietary habits. The increasing prevalence of sedentary lifestyles, consumption of processed foods, and exposure to environmental pollutants contribute to the rise in lifestyle-related diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders. Addressing these health challenges requires promoting healthy lifestyles, creating awareness about the risks of lifestyle diseases, and providing access to preventive healthcare services.

Socio-Economic Factors

Factors such as a mother's education, household wealth, and media exposure significantly contribute to inequalities in accessing services in Manipur [1]. A mother's level of education plays a crucial role in influencing health-seeking behavior and the utilization of healthcare services. Wealthier households are more likely to afford quality healthcare, education, and other essential services, while media exposure can increase awareness about available services and promote positive health behaviors. Addressing these socio-economic inequalities requires interventions that focus on improving access to education, increasing household income, and promoting media literacy.

Urban migration and socio-economic inequalities pose challenges to alleviating urban poverty and achieving sustainable development in Manipur [2]. The influx of people from rural areas to urban centers in search of better opportunities puts pressure on existing infrastructure and resources, exacerbating urban poverty. Socio-economic inequalities, such as unequal access to education, employment, and healthcare, further contribute to the persistence of poverty and hinder sustainable development. Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach that focuses on creating employment opportunities, improving access to affordable housing and basic services, and promoting social inclusion.

Caste-based disparities persist in education, employment, and income, affecting socio-economic outcomes in Manipur [5]. Despite efforts to promote social equality, caste-based discrimination continues to influence access to education, employment, and economic opportunities in Manipur. Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) often face systemic barriers that limit their socio-economic advancement. Addressing these disparities requires targeted interventions that promote social justice, ensure equal access to opportunities, and empower marginalized communities.

Income Inequality and Poverty

Poverty Incidence

Manipur experiences high urban poverty rates compared to other states in India, reflecting the state's unique socio-economic challenges [2]. While national trends indicate a decline in urban poverty, Manipur continues to lag behind, with a significant portion of its urban population living below the poverty line. Factors contributing to this high poverty rate include limited employment opportunities, inadequate infrastructure, and social inequalities. Addressing urban poverty in Manipur requires targeted interventions that focus on creating sustainable livelihoods, improving access to basic services, and promoting inclusive growth.

Multidimensional poverty, encompassing health, education, and living standards, affects a significant portion of India's population, including Manipur [6]. Poverty is not merely a matter of income but also encompasses various dimensions of human well-being, including health, education, and living standards. Multidimensional poverty indices provide a more comprehensive measure of deprivation, capturing the multiple challenges faced by vulnerable populations. Addressing multidimensional poverty requires integrated interventions that focus on improving health outcomes, enhancing educational attainment, and promoting access to basic amenities.

Targeted interventions are needed to reduce inequality and address the specific needs of vulnerable populations in Manipur [6]. Given the complex and multifaceted nature of poverty and inequality, targeted interventions are essential to address the specific needs of vulnerable populations. These interventions should be designed based on a thorough understanding of the local context, considering factors such as geographical location, socio-economic status, and cultural norms. By focusing on the most marginalized and disadvantaged groups, targeted interventions can effectively reduce inequality and promote inclusive development.

Income Distribution

Unequal distribution of income and wealth is a growing concern in developing economies, including those in the North Eastern Hill (NEH) states of India [7]. Income inequality refers to the gap between the rich and the poor, while wealth inequality refers to the unequal distribution of assets such as land, property, and financial resources. The increasing concentration of income and wealth in the hands of a few exacerbates social disparities and hinders economic development. Addressing income inequality requires policies that promote fair wages, progressive taxation, and access to economic opportunities for all.

Inter-state disparities in income are evident in the NEH region, with variations demonstrated by Gini ratios, which serve as indicators of income inequality [7]. The Gini ratio is a statistical measure of income inequality, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality). Higher Gini ratios indicate greater income inequality, while lower ratios indicate a more equitable distribution of income. The NEH region exhibits significant inter-state disparities in income, reflecting the diverse socio-economic contexts and development trajectories of these states. Addressing these disparities requires tailored policies that consider the specific challenges and opportunities of each state.

Non-farm activities contribute to income variation, indicating the importance of diverse economic opportunities in the NEH region [7]. While agriculture remains a dominant sector in the NEH region, non-farm activities such as trade, tourism, and small-scale industries play an increasingly important role in generating income and diversifying livelihoods. Promoting non-farm economic opportunities can help reduce dependence on agriculture, increase household income, and improve economic resilience. This requires investments in infrastructure, skill development, and access to credit and markets.

Factors Influencing Poverty

Socio-personal factors, policies, and programs related to shifting cultivation significantly influence economic outcomes in the NEH region [7]. Shifting cultivation, also known as jhum cultivation, is a traditional agricultural practice prevalent in the NEH region. While it has been a source of livelihood for many communities, it also poses challenges related to environmental sustainability and economic productivity. Policies and programs related to shifting cultivation management, such as promoting alternative farming practices and providing livelihood support, can significantly influence economic outcomes in the region.

Household characteristics, such as the head's education level and monthly per capita consumer expenditure, impact deprivation levels in Manipur [3]. The education level of the household head is a strong predictor of household income and overall well-being. Higher levels of education are associated with better employment opportunities and higher earnings. Similarly, monthly per capita consumer expenditure reflects the household's ability to meet its basic needs and access essential services. Addressing deprivation requires interventions that focus on improving education outcomes and increasing household income.

Poverty and social exclusion are intertwined, with poverty acting as both a cause and consequence of social exclusion in communities like Koutruk in Manipur [8]. Social exclusion refers to the process by which individuals or groups are marginalized and denied access to opportunities and resources available to the wider society. Poverty can lead to social exclusion by limiting access to education, healthcare, and employment, while social exclusion can perpetuate poverty by creating barriers to economic advancement. Addressing poverty and social exclusion requires integrated strategies that promote social inclusion, empower marginalized communities, and ensure equal access to opportunities.

Social Exclusion and Marginalization

Social Exclusion Dimensions

Social exclusion affects access to education, employment, and healthcare services for marginalized communities in Manipur [8]. Marginalized communities in Manipur, often comprising ethnic minorities, face systemic barriers that limit their access to essential services such as education, employment, and healthcare. These barriers include discrimination, lack of awareness, geographical isolation, and cultural differences. Addressing social exclusion requires targeted interventions that promote social inclusion, empower marginalized communities, and ensure equal access to opportunities.

Physical isolation due to poor transportation and communication, cultural differences, and traditional beliefs contribute to social exclusion in Manipur [8]. Poor transportation and communication infrastructure in remote areas of Manipur hinder access to essential services and limit economic opportunities. Cultural differences and traditional beliefs can also create barriers to social inclusion, particularly for marginalized communities. Addressing these challenges requires improving infrastructure, promoting cultural understanding, and challenging discriminatory practices.

Prejudice and discrimination by dominant ethnic groups, lack of awareness due to illiteracy, and inadequate support from governmental and non-governmental agencies exacerbate exclusion in Manipur [8]. Prejudice and discrimination based on ethnicity, caste, or religion can lead to social exclusion and marginalization. Lack of awareness about rights and entitlements, coupled with illiteracy, further limits the ability of marginalized communities to access available services and opportunities. Inadequate support from governmental and non-governmental agencies can also contribute to exclusion by failing to address the specific needs of vulnerable populations. Addressing these issues requires promoting social justice, increasing awareness, and strengthening support systems for marginalized communities.

Impact on Health

Social exclusion drives health inequalities, directly affecting the health system and indirectly influencing economic and social disparities in Manipur [8]. Social exclusion can have a profound impact on health outcomes by limiting access to healthcare services, increasing exposure to health risks, and creating psychological stress. These health inequalities are further exacerbated by economic and social disparities, which limit the ability of marginalized communities to access resources and opportunities that promote health and well-being. Addressing social exclusion is essential for reducing health inequalities and improving overall health outcomes.

High infant and maternal mortality rates and the prevalence of various diseases reflect the poor health status of excluded communities in Manipur [8]. Marginalized communities in Manipur often experience higher rates of infant and maternal mortality, as well as a greater prevalence of infectious and chronic diseases. These poor health outcomes are attributed to a combination of factors, including limited access to healthcare services, poor sanitation, malnutrition, and exposure to environmental hazards. Addressing these health challenges requires targeted interventions that focus on improving healthcare access, promoting healthy behaviors, and addressing the underlying social determinants of health.

Addressing social exclusion requires inclusive policies, improved infrastructure, and targeted healthcare interventions in Manipur [2]. Inclusive policies that promote social justice and ensure equal access to opportunities are essential for addressing social exclusion. Improved infrastructure, such as transportation, communication, and healthcare facilities, can help overcome geographical barriers and improve access to essential services. Targeted healthcare interventions that address the specific health needs of marginalized communities can help reduce health inequalities and improve overall health outcomes.

Gender Disparities

Globalization amplifies existing inequalities for women in the hill regions of Manipur, affecting their socio-economic, cultural, and political lives [9]. While globalization can bring about economic opportunities and advancements, it can also exacerbate existing inequalities, particularly for women in marginalized communities. Women in the hill regions of Manipur often face additional challenges due to their gender, ethnicity, and geographical location, limiting their access to education, employment, and political participation. Addressing these gender disparities requires targeted interventions that promote gender equality, empower women, and ensure their full participation in all aspects of society.

Women face dual marginalization as women and members of indigenous communities, impacting labor market participation, education, healthcare, and political representation in Manipur [9]. Women in indigenous communities often face intersecting forms of discrimination based on their gender and ethnicity, limiting their opportunities and perpetuating social inequalities. This dual marginalization affects their labor market participation, educational attainment, access to healthcare, and representation in political decision-making. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach that recognizes the specific needs and vulnerabilities of women in indigenous communities and promotes their empowerment.

Patriarchal norms and the gender divide persist, necessitating gender-sensitive policies to ensure empowerment rather than further marginalization in Manipur [9]. Despite efforts to promote gender equality, patriarchal norms and traditional gender roles continue to influence social relations and limit women's opportunities in Manipur. Gender-sensitive policies that challenge these norms and promote women's empowerment are essential for ensuring that women can fully participate in and benefit from economic and social development. These policies should address issues such as access to education, employment, healthcare, and political representation, as well as violence against women and girls.

Healthcare Access and Disparities

Maternal Healthcare

Geographical divide leads to inequality in accessing maternal healthcare services between hills and valley regions of Manipur [1]. The state’s geographical division into hill and valley regions creates significant disparities in access to maternal healthcare services. The hilly regions, characterized by difficult terrain and remoteness, often lack adequate healthcare infrastructure and skilled personnel, leading to poorer maternal health outcomes compared to the valley regions. Addressing this geographical inequality requires targeted interventions to improve healthcare access in underserved areas.

Low access to antenatal care (ANC) visits, institutional delivery, and postnatal care (PNC) visits in hilly regions indicates service inequality in Manipur [1]. Women in the hilly regions of Manipur experience lower rates of antenatal care visits, institutional deliveries, and postnatal care visits, indicating significant disparities in the utilization of maternal healthcare services. These disparities are attributed to a combination of factors, including the lack of healthcare facilities, the difficult terrain, socio-cultural barriers, and a lack of awareness about the importance of maternal healthcare. Addressing these inequalities requires a comprehensive approach that considers the multiple factors that influence maternal health service utilization.

Mother's education, household wealth, and exposure to television are main contributors to inequality in maternal health service utilization in Manipur [1]. A mother's level of education plays a crucial role in influencing her health-seeking behavior and her ability to access and utilize maternal healthcare services. Wealthier households are more likely to afford quality healthcare and transportation to healthcare facilities, while exposure to television can increase awareness about the importance of maternal healthcare and promote positive health behaviors. Addressing these socio-economic inequalities requires interventions that focus on improving education outcomes, increasing household income, and promoting media literacy.

Health Insurance Coverage

Health insurance coverage varies significantly across north-eastern states, with Manipur having low coverage compared to other states in the region [10]. While some north-eastern states have made significant progress in expanding health insurance coverage, Manipur lags behind, with a relatively small proportion of its population covered by health insurance schemes. This low coverage limits access to quality healthcare services, particularly for vulnerable populations who cannot afford out-of-pocket expenses. Addressing this issue requires concerted efforts to expand health insurance coverage and ensure that it reaches those who need it most.

Socioeconomic factors, such as having a bank account and BPL card, play a significant role in health insurance coverage in Manipur [10]. Socioeconomic status is a strong determinant of health insurance coverage, with individuals from wealthier households and those with bank accounts being more likely to have health insurance. Similarly, Below Poverty Line (BPL) cardholders are often eligible for government-sponsored health insurance schemes, increasing their likelihood of being covered. Addressing these socioeconomic disparities requires targeted interventions that focus on increasing access to financial services and ensuring that health insurance schemes are accessible to vulnerable populations.

Low health insurance coverage implies a fall in medical expenses and highlights the need for risk pooling and consolidation of providers in Manipur [10]. Health insurance can provide financial protection against unexpected medical expenses, reducing the burden of out-of-pocket payments. However, low health insurance coverage leaves many individuals vulnerable to financial hardship in the event of illness or injury. Risk pooling, which involves pooling resources from a large number of individuals to cover the healthcare costs of a few, can help reduce the financial burden on individuals. Consolidation of healthcare providers can also improve efficiency and reduce costs, making healthcare more affordable and accessible.

Public Health Challenges

High prevalence of anaemia among children remains a major health problem in Manipur, necessitating investment in addressing micronutrient deficiencies [11]. Anaemia, a condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells or haemoglobin in the blood, is a major public health problem in Manipur, particularly among children. Micronutrient deficiencies, such as iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid deficiencies, are major contributors to anaemia. Addressing this issue requires targeted interventions that focus on improving nutrition, promoting breastfeeding, and providing iron supplementation.

Air pollution contributes to deaths, disease burden, and reduced life expectancy across Indian states, including those in the Northeast [12]. Air pollution is a major environmental health risk, contributing to a range of health problems, including respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. The Northeast region of India, including Manipur, is particularly vulnerable to air pollution due to factors such as deforestation, burning of biomass, and vehicular emissions. Addressing this issue requires concerted efforts to reduce air pollution, promote clean energy, and improve public awareness about the health risks of air pollution.

There is a high prevalence of diabetes and hypertension among different Muslim populations of Manipur, requiring targeted interventions to address these health issues [13]. Studies have revealed a high prevalence of diabetes and hypertension among Muslim populations in Manipur, highlighting the need for targeted interventions to address these health issues. Factors contributing to this high prevalence may include dietary habits, lifestyle factors, and genetic predisposition. Addressing these health challenges requires promoting healthy lifestyles, increasing awareness about the risks of diabetes and hypertension, and providing access to preventive healthcare services.

Education and Human Capital

Educational Disparities

Wastage and stagnation in government primary schools persist in Manipur due to low enrollment, high dropout rates, and inadequate infrastructure [14]. Wastage refers to the premature withdrawal of students from the education system, while stagnation refers to the retention of students in the same grade for more than one year. These issues are particularly prevalent in government primary schools in Manipur, where low enrollment rates, high dropout rates, and inadequate infrastructure hinder the quality of education and limit student achievement. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that considers the multiple factors that influence educational outcomes.

Socio-economic disparities, cultural and linguistic factors, and lack of parental involvement contribute to educational challenges in Manipur [14]. Socio-economic disparities, such as poverty and inequality, can limit access to education and affect student performance. Cultural and linguistic factors can also create barriers to education, particularly for students from marginalized communities whose first language is different from the language of instruction. Lack of parental involvement can further exacerbate these challenges, as parents play a crucial role in supporting their children's education. Addressing these issues requires targeted interventions that promote social inclusion, improve parental engagement, and provide culturally responsive education.

Addressing these issues requires improved access to quality education, enhanced teacher training, and community engagement in Manipur [14]. Improving access to quality education, particularly for marginalized communities, is essential for promoting educational equity and improving student outcomes. Enhanced teacher training can equip teachers with the skills and knowledge they need to effectively teach diverse learners. Community engagement can also play a crucial role in supporting education by creating a positive learning environment and promoting parental involvement.

Tertiary Education

Progress in tertiary education participation has been made in India, but gaps exist between rich and poor, rural and urban areas, and disadvantaged groups [15]. While India has made significant progress in expanding access to tertiary education, disparities persist between different socio-economic groups. Students from wealthier households, urban areas, and privileged social groups are more likely to participate in tertiary education compared to their counterparts from poorer households, rural areas, and disadvantaged groups. Addressing these disparities requires targeted interventions that promote equitable access to tertiary education for all.

Inequality in tertiary education is explained by low secondary education completion rates in India [15]. Completion of secondary education is a prerequisite for accessing tertiary education, and low secondary education completion rates limit the pool of eligible students. Factors contributing to low secondary education completion rates include poverty, social inequalities, and inadequate infrastructure. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that focuses on improving secondary education outcomes and ensuring that all students have the opportunity to complete their education.

Equitable expansion of education is critical, with a need to support qualified youth from low-income families in technical and engineering streams in India [15]. Technical and engineering streams are crucial for driving economic growth and innovation, but students from low-income families are often underrepresented in these fields. Providing financial support, mentorship, and other resources to qualified youth from low-income families can help them overcome barriers to accessing technical and engineering education and contribute to the development of a skilled workforce.

Impact on Development

Lack of skilled human capital hinders the socio-economic development of Manipur, perpetuating an undereducated workforce [14]. A skilled workforce is essential for driving economic growth, attracting investment, and improving productivity. However, the lack of skilled human capital in Manipur limits its ability to compete in the global economy and perpetuates a cycle of underdevelopment. Addressing this issue requires investments in education, training, and skill development to equip the workforce with the skills needed for the 21st century.

Investing in primary education and addressing wastage and stagnation is crucial for nurturing a generation equipped with necessary skills in Manipur [14]. Primary education forms the foundation for future learning and skill development. Addressing wastage and stagnation in primary schools is essential for ensuring that all students have the opportunity to acquire the basic skills and knowledge they need to succeed in life. Investing in primary education can help nurture a generation of well-educated individuals equipped with the skills necessary for their personal growth and the overall development of the state.

Longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing wastage and stagnation in primary schools in Manipur [14]. Longitudinal studies, which track students over time, can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing wastage and stagnation in primary schools. These studies can help identify the factors that contribute to student success and inform the design of evidence-based policies and programs. By tracking the educational trajectories of students and examining the long-term outcomes of interventions, longitudinal studies can provide valuable information for improving primary education outcomes in Manipur.

Agriculture and Livelihood

Traditional Agroforestry

Shifting cultivation remains a main source of livelihood for forest dwellers in the NEH states, contributing to inter-state disparities in the region [7]. Shifting cultivation, a traditional agricultural practice, continues to be a primary source of livelihood for many communities in the North Eastern Hill (NEH) states. However, this practice also contributes to inter-state disparities due to its varying levels of productivity and sustainability across different regions. Understanding the dynamics of shifting cultivation is crucial for designing effective policies that promote sustainable livelihoods and reduce economic inequality.

Policies and programs related to shifting cultivation management significantly impact economic outcomes in the region [7]. The economic outcomes of communities engaged in shifting cultivation are significantly influenced by policies and programs designed to manage this practice. These policies can range from promoting alternative farming methods to providing livelihood support and conservation incentives. Effective management strategies are essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability of livelihoods and reducing environmental degradation.

Understanding the role of socio-personal factors and providing equal access to resources can help reduce economic inequality in the NEH region [7]. Socio-personal factors, such as education, skills, and social networks, play a crucial role in determining economic outcomes. Providing equal access to resources, including land, credit, and technology, can help level the playing field and reduce economic inequality. Addressing these factors requires targeted interventions that promote education, skill development, and access to resources for marginalized communities.

Black Rice Farming

Black rice cultivation in the valley region of Manipur is highly profitable compared to normal rice, offering a promising avenue for improving farmer incomes [16]. Black rice, a specialty rice variety, has gained popularity due to its nutritional value and health benefits. In the valley region of Manipur, black rice cultivation has proven to be significantly more profitable than normal rice cultivation, offering farmers an opportunity to increase their incomes and improve their livelihoods. Promoting black rice cultivation can contribute to economic development and reduce poverty in the region.

Lower cultivation costs and high market prices make black rice a sustainable income source for farmers in Manipur [16]. The profitability of black rice cultivation is attributed to its lower cultivation costs compared to normal rice, as well as its higher market prices. The lower cultivation costs are due to factors such as reduced fertilizer and pesticide requirements, while the higher market prices are driven by the increasing demand for specialty rice varieties. These factors make black rice a sustainable income source for farmers, providing them with a stable and reliable livelihood.

Extension agents should encourage black rice production to enhance livelihoods and promote sustainable agriculture in Manipur [16]. Extension agents play a crucial role in disseminating information and promoting best practices in agriculture. Encouraging black rice production through awareness programs, training, and technical support can help farmers adopt this profitable and sustainable farming practice. This can contribute to enhancing livelihoods, promoting sustainable agriculture, and improving food security in the region.

Environmental Factors

Agriculture in Northeastern India faces challenges from floods, environmental degradation, and conflicts over land and resources [17]. Agriculture in Northeastern India is highly vulnerable to environmental challenges such as floods, soil erosion, and deforestation. These challenges are exacerbated by conflicts over land and resources, which can disrupt agricultural production and undermine livelihoods. Addressing these environmental challenges is essential for ensuring the sustainability of agriculture and improving the livelihoods of farmers.

Gender dynamics in farming and forest use affect livelihood diversification and agro-biodiversity conservation in Northeastern India [17]. Gender dynamics play a crucial role in shaping agricultural practices and forest use patterns. Women are often responsible for managing natural resources and conserving agro-biodiversity, while men are more involved in commercial agriculture. Understanding these gender dynamics is essential for designing effective policies that promote sustainable livelihoods and conserve biodiversity.

Community-based approaches to natural resource management are crucial for sustainable development in Northeastern India [17]. Community-based approaches to natural resource management empower local communities to manage and conserve their natural resources in a sustainable manner. These approaches recognize the importance of local knowledge and traditional practices in promoting environmental conservation and improving livelihoods. Supporting community-based initiatives can contribute to sustainable development and reduce poverty in the region.

Impact of Government Policies and Interventions

Decentralized Governance

Decentralized governance through Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) can ensure effective and equitable service delivery at the grassroots level in Manipur [18]. Decentralized governance, through institutions like Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), is designed to bring decision-making closer to the people and ensure that services are delivered effectively and equitably at the grassroots level. These institutions are intended to empower local communities, promote participatory development, and improve accountability. Strengthening PRIs is essential for promoting inclusive growth and reducing poverty.

Locally elected representatives are better positioned to provide services according to the electorate's preferences in Manipur [18]. Locally elected representatives have a better understanding of the needs and preferences of their constituents, enabling them to provide services that are tailored to local conditions. This can lead to more effective and efficient service delivery, as well as greater citizen satisfaction. Supporting local governance and empowering elected representatives is crucial for promoting participatory development and improving service delivery.

Effective and sustainable service delivery by panchayats can improve equity for disadvantaged groups, including SCs, STs, women, and minorities in Manipur [18]. Panchayats can play a crucial role in promoting equity and social justice by ensuring that disadvantaged groups, such as Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), women, and minorities, have equal access to services and opportunities. This requires targeted interventions that address the specific needs and vulnerabilities of these groups, as well as measures to promote social inclusion and challenge discriminatory practices. Supporting panchayats in their efforts to promote equity and social justice is essential for building a more inclusive and equitable society.

Social Welfare Schemes

Government schemes aim to enhance food security and bridge calorie and nutrient gaps through programs like the Public Distribution System and Integrated Child Development Services [19]. The Public Distribution System (PDS) provides subsidized food grains to vulnerable households, while the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) provides a package of services, including nutrition, health, and education, to children and pregnant and lactating mothers. These schemes are designed to address food insecurity, reduce malnutrition, and improve the overall well-being of vulnerable populations. Strengthening these schemes and ensuring their effective implementation is crucial for achieving food security and improving nutrition outcomes.

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme provides work resources in rural areas during non-agriculture seasons, offering a safety net for vulnerable households [19]. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) guarantees 100 days of wage employment to rural households, providing a safety net during periods of unemployment, particularly during the non-agricultural season. This scheme helps reduce poverty, improve livelihoods, and empower rural communities. Strengthening NREGS and ensuring its effective implementation is essential for promoting rural development and reducing poverty.

The Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan aims to improve sanitation facilities and usage, addressing underlying determinants of undernutrition in Manipur [19]. The Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan is a national campaign to improve sanitation and hygiene, with the goal of making India clean and open defecation-free. Improved sanitation can reduce the spread of infectious diseases, improve health outcomes, and contribute to reducing undernutrition. Promoting sanitation facilities and usage is essential for improving public health and promoting sustainable development.

Policy Effectiveness

Political interference, inadequate financial resources, and bureaucratic inefficiencies hinder the effectiveness of PRIs in Manipur [20]. Despite their potential, PRIs often face challenges such as political interference, which can undermine their autonomy and effectiveness. Inadequate financial resources limit their ability to implement development projects and deliver essential services. Bureaucratic inefficiencies can also lead to delays and mismanagement of resources, further hindering their effectiveness. Addressing these challenges requires strengthening the capacity of PRIs, promoting transparency and accountability, and ensuring adequate financial resources.

Policy interventions and capacity-building measures are needed to enhance the role of PRIs in promoting equitable development in Manipur [20]. Policy interventions, such as providing greater autonomy and financial resources to PRIs, can enhance their ability to promote equitable development. Capacity-building measures, such as training and technical assistance, can equip local representatives with the skills and knowledge they need to effectively manage development projects and deliver essential services. Strengthening PRIs through policy interventions and capacity-building measures is essential for promoting inclusive growth and reducing poverty.

Digital interventions can improve transparency and governance, while increased financial autonomy strengthens the capacity of local representatives in Manipur [20]. Digital interventions, such as online portals and mobile applications, can improve transparency and accountability in governance. Increased financial autonomy can empower local representatives to make decisions about how to allocate resources and implement development projects. Combining digital interventions with increased financial autonomy can create a more efficient, transparent, and accountable system of local governance.

Drug Use and HIV Prevalence

Substance Use Patterns

Substance use, including alcohol, smoking, and smokeless tobacco, is a serious health hazard in Northeast India, requiring urgent attention and targeted interventions [21]. The consumption of alcohol, smoking, and smokeless tobacco poses significant health risks, contributing to a range of diseases and premature mortality. The high prevalence of substance use in Northeast India is a cause for concern, requiring urgent attention and targeted interventions to address this public health challenge. These interventions should focus on prevention, treatment, and harm reduction.

Substance use is significantly higher in NEI compared to the rest of the country, with a high prevalence among adolescents, highlighting the need for early intervention strategies [21]. The prevalence of substance use in Northeast India is significantly higher compared to the rest of the country, indicating a need for targeted interventions to address this issue. The high prevalence of substance use among adolescents is particularly concerning, highlighting the need for early intervention strategies to prevent young people from initiating substance use. These strategies should focus on education, awareness, and providing support to vulnerable youth.

Substance use plateaus in the 25-49 age group before declining, with lower likelihood among those with higher education and wealth, suggesting targeted approaches for different demographic groups [21]. The pattern of substance use across different age groups suggests that interventions should be tailored to the specific needs of different demographic groups. The lower likelihood of substance use among those with higher education and wealth indicates that interventions should focus on addressing the underlying socio-economic factors that contribute to substance use among vulnerable populations. These factors may include poverty, unemployment, and social exclusion.

HIV Transmission

Armed conflicts and instability can increase the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and HIV transmission, creating complex public health challenges [22]. Armed conflicts and instability can disrupt social structures, weaken healthcare systems, and increase vulnerability to sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV transmission. Displacement, poverty, and violence can create conditions that favor the spread of these infections. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that includes prevention, treatment, and care.

Poverty, powerlessness, and social instability exacerbate transmission in complex emergencies, requiring integrated interventions to address the root causes of vulnerability [22]. Poverty, powerlessness, and social instability can increase vulnerability to STIs and HIV transmission by limiting access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. These factors can also lead to risky behaviors, such as transactional sex and injecting drug use. Addressing these root causes of vulnerability requires integrated interventions that promote social justice, empower marginalized communities, and ensure access to essential services.

Refugees are highly vulnerable to predation, rape, and transactional sex, increasing the risk of HIV transmission and necessitating targeted protection and support measures [22]. Refugees are particularly vulnerable to violence, exploitation, and abuse, including predation, rape, and transactional sex. These experiences can increase their risk of HIV transmission. Providing refugees with protection, support, and access to healthcare services is essential for preventing HIV transmission and promoting their well-being.

Interventions and Prevention

Targeted interventions are required to minimize HIV transmission, especially among widowed/divorced/separated individuals and injecting drug users in Manipur [23]. Specific populations such as widowed, divorced, or separated individuals and injecting drug users (IDUs) often face heightened risks of HIV transmission. Targeted interventions are crucial for addressing the unique vulnerabilities of these groups. These interventions should include education, counseling, testing, and access to harm reduction services.

Harm reduction programs, including needle exchange and opioid substitution therapies, are essential for preventing HIV spread among drug users in Manipur [22]. Harm reduction programs aim to reduce the negative consequences associated with drug use without necessarily requiring abstinence. Needle exchange programs provide sterile needles and syringes to drug users, reducing the risk of HIV transmission through shared needles. Opioid substitution therapies, such as methadone and buprenorphine, can help reduce drug cravings and withdrawal symptoms, making it easier for drug users to abstain from injecting drugs. These programs are essential for preventing HIV spread among drug users.

Addressing the underlying socio-economic factors and promoting awareness are crucial for preventing explosive IDU-related epidemics in Manipur [22]. Socio-economic factors such as poverty, unemployment, and social exclusion can contribute to drug use and increase the risk of HIV transmission. Addressing these underlying factors is essential for preventing explosive IDU-related epidemics. Promoting awareness about the risks of drug use and HIV transmission can also help reduce risky behaviors. These efforts should be combined with comprehensive prevention, treatment, and harm reduction services.

Globalization and Economic Change

Impact on Women

Globalization amplifies existing inequalities for women in the hill regions of Manipur, affecting their socio-economic, cultural, and political lives [9]. The integration of Manipur's economy and society into the global system has brought both opportunities and challenges for women in the hill regions. While globalization can create new economic opportunities, it can also exacerbate existing inequalities, particularly for women who face multiple# Economic Inequalities in Manipur

Overview of Economic Disparities

Economic disparities in Manipur are multifaceted, stemming from geographical divisions, urban-rural divides, and various socio-economic factors. These inequalities affect access to essential services, income distribution, and overall quality of life for different segments of the population. Understanding these disparities is crucial for designing effective policies and interventions to promote inclusive growth and reduce poverty.

Geographical and Regional Divide

Manipur's unique geography, characterized by distinct valley and hill districts, significantly contributes to unequal development across the state [1]. The state is broadly divided into two sets of landmasses, with the valley region being relatively more developed compared to the hilly districts. This geographical division has implications for infrastructure development, access to services, and economic opportunities available to residents in different regions.

Hilly districts, in particular, often lack basic infrastructure such as healthcare facilities, educational institutions, and reliable transportation systems, which are more readily available in the valley regions [1]. The lack of these essential services hinders the overall development and well-being of communities in the hilly areas. The public distribution system, which ensures access to essential commodities, is also less effective in these remote regions, further exacerbating disparities.

The geographical divide also manifests in unequal access to maternal healthcare services [1]. Prem Shankar Mishra, N. Pautunthang, Strong P. Marbaniang, and Anushree K. N highlight that individuals residing in the hilly regions have significantly lower access to crucial maternal healthcare services compared to their counterparts in the valley areas. This disparity in access underscores the broader issue of geographical inequality in healthcare provision and utilization.

Urban-Rural Divide

While urban poverty rates in India have generally been declining due to economic reforms and government initiatives, significant disparities persist among different states, including Manipur [2]. Anita Anita and Shiv Shankar Sain note that Manipur has one of the highest urban poverty rates. This high rate indicates that urban areas in Manipur face specific challenges in poverty alleviation despite overall national progress.

Paradoxically, urban areas in Manipur exhibit higher concentrations of deprived people compared to rural areas, which contrasts with traditional expectations of rural deprivation [3]. Utpal Kumar De and Loitongbam Hena Devi found that the Imphal-West district overtook the Tamenglong District as the most deprived district in Manipur in 2015-16. This urban concentration of deprivation suggests that developmental policies may not be effectively reaching the most vulnerable urban populations.

Improved living conditions in urban areas, such as better transport, healthcare, and educational facilities, coexist with rising lifestyle diseases, reflecting a complex interplay of development and health challenges [4]. Sanjay Kalra, AmbikaGopalakrishnan Unnikrishnan, and MK Garg observe that urbanization and reduced physical activity contribute to an increased body mass index (BMI) and associated metabolic diseases in urban dwellers. The coexistence of improved living standards and rising health issues underscores the need for holistic development strategies that address both economic and health dimensions.

Socio-Economic Factors

Various socio-economic factors contribute to inequalities in access to services and overall well-being in Manipur. Factors such as mother's education, household wealth, and exposure to media significantly influence access to maternal healthcare services [1]. Mothers with higher education levels and those from wealthier households are more likely to utilize essential maternal health services, highlighting the role of socio-economic status in healthcare access.

Urban migration and persistent socio-economic inequalities pose significant challenges to alleviating urban poverty and achieving sustainable development [2]. The influx of people into urban centers often strains existing resources and infrastructure, leading to the formation of slums and informal settlements. These areas are characterized by inadequate access to basic amenities and increased vulnerability to economic shocks.

Caste-based disparities also persist in education, employment, and income, affecting socio-economic outcomes in Manipur [5]. Firoj Kumar Sonwani's study reveals significant inequalities among Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs), and General Categories in Chhattisgarh. These findings highlight the continued relevance of caste as a determinant of socio-economic status, influencing access to opportunities and resources.

Income Inequality and Poverty

Income inequality and poverty are pervasive issues in Manipur, affecting a significant portion of the population and hindering overall socio-economic progress. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive understanding of poverty incidence, income distribution patterns, and the various factors that influence economic outcomes.

Poverty Incidence

Manipur experiences high urban poverty rates compared to other states in India, reflecting unique socio-economic challenges within the state [2]. The high urban poverty rate underscores the need for targeted interventions to improve living standards and economic opportunities for urban residents. These interventions may include skill development programs, employment generation initiatives, and improved access to basic services.

Multidimensional poverty, encompassing various dimensions such as health, education, and living standards, affects a significant portion of India's population, including those residing in Manipur [6]. Bidyadhar Dehury and Sanjay K. Mohanty measured multidimensional poverty using data from the Indian Human Development Survey (IHDS) 2011-12. Their results indicate that a substantial percentage of India's population experiences deprivation across multiple dimensions, highlighting the need for integrated approaches to poverty reduction.

Targeted interventions are needed to reduce inequality and address the specific needs of vulnerable populations in Manipur, focusing on health, education, and economic well-being [6]. These interventions should be designed to address the root causes of poverty and deprivation, empowering individuals and communities to improve their overall quality of life. Strategies may include improving access to quality education, healthcare services, and livelihood opportunities, particularly for marginalized groups.

Income Distribution

Unequal distribution of income and wealth is a growing concern in developing economies, including those in the North Eastern Hill (NEH) states of India [7]. D. Pandey, P. Adhiguru, H. K. De, A.D. Upadhyay, and Kalidoss Radhakrishnan note the increasing concern about unequal distribution of income and wealth, especially in developing economies. This concern underscores the need for inclusive development strategies that promote equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.

Inter-state disparities in income are evident in the NEH region, with variations demonstrated by Gini ratios, reflecting different levels of income inequality across states [7]. These disparities highlight the diverse economic landscapes within the region and the need for tailored policy approaches that address the specific challenges and opportunities in each state. Factors such as infrastructure development, access to markets, and human capital development play a crucial role in shaping income distribution patterns.

Non-farm activities contribute to income variation, indicating the importance of diverse economic opportunities beyond traditional agriculture [7]. The variation in Gini ratios indicates that higher nonfarm income may be because of opportunities in non-farm activities. Promoting non-farm employment through skill development, entrepreneurship support, and access to credit can help reduce income inequality and improve economic resilience.

Factors Influencing Poverty

Socio-personal factors, policies, and programs related to shifting cultivation significantly influence economic outcomes in the NEH region, affecting livelihoods and income levels [7]. Shifting cultivation, also known as jhum cultivation, remains a primary source of livelihood for many communities in the NEH region. However, its impact on economic outcomes is influenced by various socio-personal factors, as well as the policies and programs designed to manage this agricultural practice.

Household characteristics, such as the head's education level and monthly per capita consumer expenditure, significantly impact deprivation levels in Manipur [3]. Utpal Kumar De and Loitongbam Hena Devi found that factors like the education of the head of household and Monthly Per Capita Consumer Expenditure have significant impact on deprivation level in Manipur. These findings underscore the importance of investing in human capital development and improving household economic conditions to reduce deprivation.

Poverty and social exclusion are intertwined, with poverty acting as both a cause and consequence of social exclusion in communities like Koutruk in Manipur [8]. Dilwar Hussain and Khwairakpam Zhiman Singh's qualitative study in the Koutruk community demonstrated that the prevalence of high poverty in the community can be considered the cause as well as product of social exclusion. Addressing poverty requires tackling the underlying drivers of social exclusion and promoting inclusive development that benefits all members of society.

Social Exclusion and Marginalization

Social exclusion and marginalization are critical issues contributing to economic inequalities in Manipur. These processes prevent certain individuals and groups from fully participating in society, limiting their access to opportunities and resources. Understanding the dimensions and impacts of social exclusion is essential for developing effective strategies to promote inclusion and equity.

Social Exclusion Dimensions

Social exclusion affects access to education, employment, and healthcare services for marginalized communities in Manipur, hindering their socio-economic advancement [8]. Dilwar Hussain and Khwairakpam Zhiman Singh highlighted that the Koutruk community has been experiencing social exclusion in various dimensions such as education, employment and health-care services. The lack of access to these essential services perpetuates cycles of poverty and inequality, limiting the potential of marginalized individuals and communities.

Physical isolation due to poor transportation and communication infrastructure, cultural differences, and traditional beliefs contribute to social exclusion in Manipur [8]. The lack of adequate transportation and communication networks isolates remote communities, limiting their access to markets, information, and essential services. Cultural differences and traditional beliefs can also create barriers to integration and participation in mainstream society.

Prejudice and discrimination by dominant ethnic groups, lack of awareness due to illiteracy, and inadequate support from governmental and non-governmental agencies exacerbate social exclusion [8]. Prejudice and discrimination based on ethnicity, caste, or other social identities can limit access to opportunities and resources. Illiteracy and lack of awareness further compound these challenges, while inadequate support from government and non-governmental organizations leaves marginalized communities without the necessary assistance to overcome barriers.

Impact on Health

Social exclusion drives health inequalities, directly affecting the health system and indirectly influencing economic and social disparities in Manipur [8]. Social exclusion may directly influence health by affecting the health system and indirectly by affecting economic and other social inequalities that influence health. Marginalized communities often experience poorer health outcomes due to limited access to healthcare services, inadequate sanitation, and other factors related to their exclusion from mainstream society.

High infant and maternal mortality rates and the prevalence of various diseases reflect the poor health status of excluded communities in Manipur, highlighting the severe consequences of social exclusion on health outcomes [8]. High infant and maternal mortality rates, as well as various diseases were found in the community. These health indicators underscore the urgent need for targeted interventions to improve healthcare access and address the underlying determinants of poor health among excluded populations.

Addressing social exclusion requires inclusive policies, improved infrastructure, and targeted healthcare interventions to promote equitable access to services and improve health outcomes [2]. Inclusive policies should aim to remove barriers to participation and ensure that all members of society have equal access to opportunities and resources. Improved infrastructure, such as transportation and communication networks, can help connect isolated communities and facilitate access to essential services.

Gender Disparities

Globalization amplifies existing inequalities for women in the hill regions of Manipur, affecting their socio-economic, cultural, and political lives [9]. Wonkhuimi Raman and C. N. Khuptong's research article explores the multifaceted gender issues that arise from the process of globalization, particularly focusing on the women of the hill regions in Manipur, India. The study examines how globalization has affected the socio-economic, cultural, and political lives of these women, often amplifying existing inequalities while offering limited opportunities for empowerment.

Women face dual marginalization as women and members of indigenous communities, impacting their labor market participation, access to education, healthcare, and political representation [9]. Through an intersectional lens, the research highlights the dual marginalization faced by women in these remote regionsboth as women and as members of indigenous communities. Key areas such as labor market participation, access to education, healthcare, and political representation are analyzed, alongside the impact of global consumerism on local traditions and identities.

Patriarchal norms and the gender divide persist, necessitating gender-sensitive policies to ensure empowerment rather than further marginalization of women in Manipur [9]. The findings suggest that while globalization has brought about certain economic benefits, it has also entrenched patriarchal norms and widened the gender divide. The study calls for more inclusive and gender-sensitive policies that address the unique challenges faced by women in Manipur’s hills, ensuring that globalization becomes a tool for empowerment rather than further marginalization.

Healthcare Access and Disparities

Access to healthcare services in Manipur is marked by significant disparities, influenced by geographical divisions, socio-economic factors, and varying levels of health insurance coverage. Addressing these disparities is crucial for improving public health outcomes and promoting equitable access to healthcare for all residents.

Maternal Healthcare

The geographical divide leads to inequality in accessing maternal healthcare services between the hills and valley regions of Manipur, highlighting the need for targeted interventions [1]. Prem Shankar Mishra, N. Pautunthang, Strong P. Marbaniang, and Anushree K. N.'s study indicates low utilization of maternal health services in the hilly region. This divide highlights the challenges in delivering adequate healthcare to remote and underserved areas.

Low access to antenatal care (ANC) visits, institutional delivery, and postnatal care (PNC) visits in hilly regions indicates a significant inequality in service provision, affecting maternal and child health outcomes [1]. Results indicate low access in the hilly region, with only 19%, 22%, and 21% having access to 4+ ANC visits, institutional delivery, and PNC visits, respectively. The odds of utilizing these services were less in the hilly region compared to the valley, indicating inequality in services.

Mother's education, household wealth, and exposure to television are main contributors to inequality in maternal health service utilization, underscoring the importance of addressing socio-economic determinants [1]. Mother education, household wealth, exposure to television are main contributors to inequality. Better opportunities economic activities may improve health.

Health Insurance Coverage

Health insurance coverage varies significantly across north-eastern states, with Manipur having notably low coverage, indicating a need for expanding access to financial protection for healthcare [10]. Moirangthem Hemanta Meitei and Haobijam Bonny Singh's study observed that among states, highest health insurance coverage was in Arunachal Pradesh (59%) followed by Tripura (58%), Mizoram (47%) surpassing India level 27%, whereas lowest was in Manipur (4%) and Nagaland (6%) Assam (10%). This low coverage leaves a significant portion of the population vulnerable to high out-of-pocket health expenditures.

Socioeconomic factors, such as having a bank account and BPL (Below Poverty Line) card, play a significant role in health insurance coverage, highlighting the need for targeted interventions to reach vulnerable populations [10]. Socioeconomic factors, with bank account and below poverty line (BPL) cardholders played significant role. People with bank accounts and BPL cards are more likely to have health insurance.

Low health insurance coverage implies a fall in medical expenses and highlights the need for risk pooling and consolidation of providers to improve access and affordability of healthcare services [10]. Taking multiple providers, risk pooling consolidation providers have become need hour. This could be a protective shield from entrapment into poverty due to high expenditure.

Public Health Challenges

A high prevalence of anaemia among children remains a major health problem in Manipur, necessitating investment in addressing micronutrient deficiencies and improving feeding practices [11]. Himani Sharma, Shri Kant Singh, and Shobhit Srivastava's study analysed the extent socio-economic inequalities and spatial heterogeneity using data from recent round Indian DHS, known as National Family Health Survey. The findings suggest greater investment addressing micronutrient deficiencies feeding practices, by adopting differential approaches especially regions higher anaemia.

Air pollution contributes to deaths, disease burden, and reduced life expectancy across Indian states, including those in the Northeast, underscoring the need for comprehensive pollution control measures [12]. Kalpana Balakrishnan, Sagnik Dey, Tarun Gupta, and others note that air pollution is a major planetary health risk, with India estimated to have some of the worst levels globally. Reducing substantial avoidable environmental risk dependent rapid deployment effective multisectoral policies throughout are commensurate magnitude state.

There is a high prevalence of diabetes and hypertension among different Muslim populations of Manipur, indicating the need for targeted interventions to address these non-communicable diseases [13]. Ahsana Shah and Mohammad Afzal's study reports prevalence of DM HT its influence from possible risk factors. The study reports prevalence of DM HT its influence from possible risk factors.

Education and Human Capital

Education and human capital development are critical for reducing economic inequalities and promoting socio-economic progress in Manipur. Addressing disparities in access to quality education, improving educational outcomes, and enhancing skills development are essential for empowering individuals and communities.

Educational Disparities

Wastage and stagnation in government primary schools persist due to low enrollment rates, high dropout rates, and inadequate infrastructure, hindering the quality of primary education in Manipur [14]. D. Singh's critical analysis aims to examine the causes and consequences of wastage and stagnation in government primary schools, shedding light on the complex factors that contribute to these issues. Factors such as low enrolment rates, high dropout rates, inadequate infrastructure, teacher shortages, and socio-economic disparities are identified as key contributors to the problem.

Socio-economic disparities, cultural and linguistic factors, and lack of parental involvement contribute to educational challenges, requiring targeted interventions to address these underlying issues [14]. Factors such as low enrolment rates, high dropout rates, inadequate infrastructure, teacher shortages, and socio-economic disparities are identified as key contributors to the problem. Additionally, cultural and linguistic factors, lack of parental involvement, and ineffective pedagogical practices are also examined.

Addressing these issues requires improved access to quality education, enhanced teacher training and support, and strengthened community engagement to create a supportive learning environment [14]. Strategies such as improving access to quality education, enhancing teacher training and support, strengthening community engagement, and addressing socio-economic disparities are crucial. Furthermore, the development and implementation of evidence-based policies and interventions tailored to the specific needs of Manipur’s government primary schools are essential.

Tertiary Education

Progress in tertiary education participation has been made, but gaps exist between the rich and poor, rural and urban areas, and disadvantaged groups, indicating persistent inequalities in access to higher education [15]. Mehtabul Azam and Andreas Blom's findings suggest that there has been considerable progress attainment participation; however, they remain low. Important gaps exist enrollment between rich poor, rural urban areas, men women, disadvantaged groups general population, states.

Inequality in tertiary education is explained by low secondary education completion rates, highlighting the importance of strengthening secondary education to improve access to higher education [15]. Analysis of transition rates secondary regression analysis indicate inequality population is explained by low completion education. Inequality related income, gender, residence, states by: (i) differences education, (ii) probability transitioning particular, importance income grown markedly.

Equitable expansion of education is critical, with a need to support qualified youth from low-income families in technical and engineering streams to promote greater inclusivity and diversity in higher education [15]. Equitable expansion therefore critical for improving equity There also a need help qualified youth low-income families backgrounds attend particular technical engineering streams, which participation lower.

Impact on Development

A lack of skilled human capital hinders the socio-economic development of Manipur, perpetuating an undereducated workforce and limiting economic opportunities [14]. The educational system as a whole suffers from inefficiencies and a lack of skilled human capital. The long-term socio-economic development of Manipur is hindered by the perpetuation of an undereducated workforce.

Investing in primary education and addressing wastage and stagnation is crucial for nurturing a generation of well-educated individuals equipped with the skills necessary for their personal growth and the overall development of the state [14]. By investing in the improvement of primary education, Manipur can nurture a generation of well-educated individuals equipped with the skills necessary for their personal growth and the overall development of the state.

Longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of specific interventions aimed at reducing wastage and stagnation in primary schools, providing valuable insights into successful strategies [14]. Further research should focus on evaluating the effectiveness of specific interventions aimed at reducing wastage and stagnation in government primary schools. Longitudinal studies tracking the educational trajectories of students and examining the long-term outcomes of interventions would provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of various strategies.

Agriculture and Livelihood

Agriculture and allied activities form the backbone of Manipur's economy, particularly in rural areas. Understanding the dynamics of traditional agroforestry, black rice farming, and environmental factors is crucial for promoting sustainable livelihoods and reducing economic inequalities in the state.

Traditional Agroforestry

Shifting cultivation remains a main source of livelihood for forest dwellers in the NEH states, contributing to inter-state disparities and influencing economic stability [7]. It was observed that shifting cultivation (SC) remains main source livelihood all studied sites. clear-cut inter-state disparities demonstrated Gini ratios.

Policies and programs related to shifting cultivation management significantly impact economic outcomes in the region, necessitating careful planning and implementation to ensure sustainable practices [7]. addition, other factors which are contributing significantly socio-personal factors, policies programmes SC management. understanding role played such would greatly facilitate evolving appropriate policy perspectives reducing economic measures like investment human capital thus ensuring stable farm economy region.

Understanding the role of socio-personal factors and providing equal access to resources can help reduce economic inequality and promote sustainable livelihoods in communities dependent on traditional agroforestry [7]. Further, various options generation by providing equal access resources has been dealt paper. It was observed that shifting cultivation (SC) remains main source livelihood all studied sites.

Black Rice Farming

Black rice cultivation in the valley region of Manipur is highly profitable compared to normal rice, offering a sustainable income source for farmers and contributing to economic development [16]. Manish Sharma, Ram Singh, Loukham Devarani, and L. Hemochandra's study showed that black rice was found to be highly profitable to the farmers as compared to normal rice. The cost of cultivation of normal rice is estimated to be higher mainly due to higher expenditure on machinery charge, labor charge (hired and family) and fertilizer and manure.

Lower cultivation costs and high market prices make black rice a sustainable income source for farmers, enhancing their economic well-being and reducing vulnerability to economic shocks [16]. Since the cultivation cost of black rice is less but high market price of produce becomes it highly profitable for farmers. Therefore, it is suggested that the extension agent should conduct awareness programs to encourage the farmers to produce black rice commercially, which would be helpful in enhancing the livelihood and sustainable income to the farmers.

Extension agents should encourage black rice production to enhance livelihoods and promote sustainable agriculture, disseminating knowledge and providing support to farmers [16]. Therefore, it is suggested that the extension agent should conduct awareness programs to encourage the farmers to produce black rice commercially, which would be helpful in enhancing the livelihood and sustainable income to the farmers.

Environmental Factors

Agriculture in Northeastern India faces challenges from floods, environmental degradation, and conflicts over land and resources, affecting agricultural productivity and livelihoods [17]. These environmental challenges require integrated approaches to promote sustainable agricultural practices and mitigate the impacts of climate change and resource degradation.

Gender dynamics in farming and forest use affect livelihood diversification and agro-biodiversity conservation, necessitating gender-sensitive policies and programs to promote equitable participation and benefit-sharing [17]. Understanding the gender dimensions of agriculture and natural resource management is essential for designing interventions that empower women and promote sustainable development.

Community-based approaches to natural resource management are crucial for sustainable development, promoting local participation and ensuring the long-term viability of agricultural systems [17]. These approaches empower local communities to manage their resources sustainably, promoting biodiversity conservation and enhancing resilience to environmental changes.

Impact of Government Policies and Interventions

Government policies and interventions play a crucial role in addressing economic inequalities and promoting socio-economic development in Manipur. Decentralized governance through Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), social welfare schemes, and effective policy implementation are essential for improving the lives of marginalized communities.

Decentralized Governance

Decentralized governance through Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) can ensure effective and equitable service delivery at the grassroots level, promoting local participation and accountability [18]. Mr.Sonkhongam Haokip and Dr.AnandaRajakumar. P argue that decentralized governance is an instrument for multifaceted development and it can ensure effective equitable at grassroots level. This is because, locally elected representatives know their small constituency better are in advantageous position to provide services according electorate''s preferences.

Locally elected representatives are better positioned to provide services according to the electorate's preferences, enhancing responsiveness and improving the quality of public services [18]. This because, locally elected representatives know their small constituency better are in advantageous position to provide services according electorate''s preferences.It easier the electorates hold bodies accountable performance.

Effective and sustainable service delivery by panchayats can improve equity for disadvantaged groups, including SCs, STs, women, and minorities, promoting inclusive development and reducing social disparities [18]. Equity defined distribute deliver fairly well fair justice disadvantaged groups, particularly SCs, STs, women, including minorities people below poverty line.

Social Welfare Schemes

Government schemes aim to enhance food security and bridge calorie and nutrient gaps through programs like the Public Distribution System (PDS) and Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), addressing malnutrition and promoting well-being [19]. These schemes provide essential food and nutrition support to vulnerable populations, helping to improve their overall health and nutritional status.

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) provides work resources in rural areas during non-agriculture seasons, offering livelihood opportunities and reducing seasonal unemployment [19]. This scheme provides a safety net for rural households, ensuring a minimum level of income during periods of economic hardship.

The Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan aims to improve sanitation facilities and usage, addressing underlying determinants of undernutrition and promoting public health [19]. To accelerated reductions increased investments programmes address underlying determinants imperative (Ruel Poverty, insecurity, early marriages, fertility birth spacing stunting.

Policy Effectiveness

Political interference, inadequate financial resources, and bureaucratic inefficiencies hinder the effectiveness of PRIs, limiting their ability to promote equitable development [20]. These challenges undermine the autonomy and capacity of local institutions, reducing their effectiveness in addressing local needs and promoting sustainable development.

Policy interventions and capacity-building measures are needed to enhance the role of PRIs in promoting equitable development, empowering local institutions and improving governance [20]. Strengthening these institutions is crucial for achieving sustainable rural development and ensuring that marginalized communities benefit from government initiatives.

Digital interventions can improve transparency and governance, while increased financial autonomy strengthens the capacity of local representatives to effectively manage resources and implement development projects [20]. Digital interventions can improve transparency and governance, while increased financial autonomy strengthens the capacity of local representatives.

Drug Use and HIV Prevalence

Drug use and HIV prevalence pose significant public health challenges in Manipur, particularly in the context of socio-economic inequalities and marginalized communities. Understanding the patterns of substance use, the modes of HIV transmission, and the effectiveness of interventions is crucial for developing comprehensive strategies to address these issues.

Substance Use Patterns

Substance use, including alcohol, smoking, and smokeless tobacco, is a serious health hazard in Northeast India, contributing to various health problems and socio-economic challenges [21]. Nandita Saikia and Benjamin Debbarma identified substance use as a serious health hazard in India. Understanding socioeconomic correlates substance Northeast India (NEI) will provide crucial input for public policies this region.

Substance use is significantly higher in NEI compared to the rest of the country, with a high prevalence among adolescents, highlighting the need for targeted prevention programs and awareness campaigns [21]. Substance was significantly higher NEI than those elsewhere country (any i.e. India: 50.03% vs. NEI: 70.83%). The smoking is also compared rest country.

Substance use plateaus in the 25-49 age group before declining, with lower likelihood among those with higher education and wealth, indicating the influence of socio-economic factors on substance use patterns [21]. Substance plateaus 25 49 group before beginning decline users aged 50 54 years. likelihood goes down with increasing education wealth NEI.

HIV Transmission

Armed conflicts and instability can increase the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and HIV transmission, particularly in regions affected by conflict and displacement [22]. Catherine Hankins, Samuel R. Friedman, Tariq Zafar, and Steffanie A. Strathdee note that wars can increase the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STI) facilitate HIV transmission through sexual routes, injection drug use (IDU), contaminated blood transfusions occupational injuries; furthermore, they create synergistic conditions for interacting epidemics. This influence epidemic dynamics in surrounding countries beyond, both directly by itself indirectly reallocation health-related public funds toward security defense measures.

Poverty, powerlessness, and social instability exacerbate HIV transmission in complex emergencies, requiring integrated approaches to address the underlying social determinants of health [22]. Poverty, powerlessness social instability, all transmission, are extremely heightened complex emergencies, but is rarely seen a priority.

Refugees are highly vulnerable to predation, rape, and transactional sex, increasing the risk of HIV transmission and highlighting the need for protection and support for displaced populations [22]. Refugees highly vulnerable predation money rape weapons. For example, Mozambique, disruption, compromised health infrastructure likely provoked higher 19921993 displaced pregnant women, some whom experienced abuse repeated while being held captive insurgents.

Interventions and Prevention

Targeted interventions are required to minimize HIV transmission, especially among widowed/divorced/separated individuals and injecting drug users, focusing on high-risk groups and behaviors [23]. MalayKumar Saha, Subrata Biswas, Abhik Sinha, and others note that targeted interventions are required urgently minimize HIV transmission, especially among widowed/divorced/separated, only used nonmedical purpose.

Harm reduction programs, including needle exchange and opioid substitution therapies, are essential for preventing HIV spread among drug users, reducing transmission rates and improving public health outcomes [22]. Shifting supply-side monitored, modifications anticipated, countries. bordering world, methadone, sublingual buprenorphine medications dramatically scaled stimulated emergencies.

Addressing the underlying socio-economic factors and promoting awareness are crucial for preventing explosive IDU-related epidemics, requiring a comprehensive and multi-faceted approach [22]. Poor awareness minimal preventing explosive IDU-related epidemics Western (e.g. New York, Edinburgh, Milan), Asian Bangkok, Manipur, several Vietnamese cities) Newly Independent Kaliningrad, Odessa, Svetlogorsk), sometimes rising rapidly 50%.

Globalization and Economic Change

Globalization and economic change have profound impacts on Manipur, affecting various aspects of socio-economic life, including gender disparities, poverty reduction, and the digitalization of micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs). Understanding these impacts is essential for developing policies that promote inclusive growth and sustainable development.

Impact on Women

Globalization amplifies existing inequalities for women in the hill regions of Manipur, affecting their socio-economic, cultural, and political lives, requiring gender-sensitive policies and interventions [9]. Wonkhuimi Raman and C. N. Khuptong's research article explores the multifaceted gender issues that arise from the process of globalization, particularly focusing on the women of the hill regions in Manipur, India. The study examines how globalization has affected the socio-economic, cultural, and political lives of these women, often amplifying existing inequalities while offering limited opportunities for empowerment.

Women face dual marginalization as women and members of indigenous communities, impacting their labor market participation, access to education, healthcare, and political representation, necessitating targeted support and empowerment initiatives [9]. Through an intersectional lens, the research highlights the dual marginalization faced by women in these remote regionsboth as women and as members of indigenous communities.

Patriarchal norms and the gender divide persist, necessitating gender-sensitive policies to ensure empowerment rather than further marginalization of women in Manipur, promoting gender equality and social justice [9]. The findings suggest that while globalization has brought about certain economic benefits, it has also entrenched patriarchal norms and widened the gender divide. The study calls for more inclusive and gender-sensitive policies that address the unique challenges faced by women in Manipur’s hills, ensuring that globalization becomes a tool for empowerment rather than further marginalization.

Economic Reforms

Economic reforms and industrialization have contributed to the decline in urban poverty in India, but significant disparities persist among states, requiring targeted interventions to address specific challenges [2]. Urban poverty in India has been consistently declining over the past five decades due to economic reforms, industrialization, and various government initiatives. This study analyzes the spatial and temporal variations in urban poverty across different states and time periods.

The Green Revolution, economic liberalization, and expansion of the IT sector have played key roles in reducing poverty levels, enhancing agricultural productivity, and promoting economic growth [2]. Key contributing factors include the Green Revolution, economic liberalization, expansion of the IT sector, and targeted welfare schemes such as PMAY, NULM, and Digital India.

Government interventions like Aadhaar-linked subsidies and direct benefit transfers have effectively reduced poverty, but challenges persist due to rising urban migration, requiring comprehensive strategies to address urban poverty and promote sustainable development [2]. Despite fluctuations, particularly in 2010-11, government interventions like Aadhaar-linked subsidies and direct benefit transfers have effectively reduced poverty levels. However, challenges persist due to rising urban migration and socio-economic inequalities.

Digitalization of MSMEs

The COVID-19 pandemic has created challenges and prospects for Digital MSMEs in Manipur, highlighting the importance of digital literacy and access to technology [24]. Jianguanglung Dangmei and Amarendra Pratap Singh note that the pandemic triggered by Covid 19 created various challenges to Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises of India. However, it has a major prospect for Digital MSME in particular, as well other enterprises general, expand thrive business.

Digitalization supports India initiatives and Business Development Services, helping MSMEs expand and thrive, promoting economic growth and job creation [24]. technology been extensively used all fields economic activity scenario that motivates entrepreneurs embrace new technological innovation order survive the competitive markets.

Well-designed policies and efforts to improve digital and financial literacy are crucial for bridging the growth diffusion of MSMEs, enhancing their competitiveness and promoting sustainable development [24]. As result, digitalization is an opportunity best option dealing with challenges, ensuring enterprise survival, increasing competitiveness digital era.

Regional Development and Convergence

Regional development and convergence are critical for reducing economic inequalities and promoting balanced growth across different regions of Manipur and the North-Eastern Hill (NEH) states. Understanding the impact of policies like the Look East Policy (LEP), addressing state-level disparities, and promoting social development are essential for achieving these goals.

Look East Policy

India's Look East Policy (LEP) has resulted in regional income convergence in North-Eastern India, promoting economic integration and reducing disparities [25]. Homagni Choudhury, Zoltan Laszlo Kopacsi, Gunjan Saxena, and Nishikant Mishra's data, using time-series methods, reveals that policy changes ensuing reforms 1990s initiation LEP 1991 have resulted regional income convergence North-Eastern India.

Policy changes and reforms initiated in the 1990s have contributed to this convergence, highlighting the importance of strategic policy interventions for promoting regional development [25]. Our data, using time-series methods, reveals that policy changes ensuing reforms 1990s initiation LEP 1991 have resulted regional income convergence North-Eastern India.

Targeted market-oriented policies can reduce inequality and promote inclusive development, ensuring that the benefits of economic growth are shared equitably across different regions and communities [25]. Overall, offers both conceptual insights into processes enable inclusive making, well empirical evidence emerging stochastic incomes per capita for Sister region India, illustrate inequality be reduced through targeted market-oriented.

State-Level Disparities

Significant disparities exist among states in urban poverty rates, with Manipur having high rates, indicating the need for state-specific strategies to address urban poverty [2]. Findings indicate significant disparities among states, with Bihar (31.23%) and Manipur (32.59%) having the highest urban poverty rates, whereas Goa (4.09%) and Himachal Pradesh (4.33%) recorded the lowest.

Regional variations in multidimensional poverty highlight the need for target-based interventions to reduce inequality, addressing the specific needs of different regions and vulnerable populations [6]. Results indicate that 43% Indias population poor with large regional variations. average intensity was 45.5% value 19.3.

States like Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal account for a significant share of India's poor population, requiring focused attention and resource allocation to address poverty in these regions , [ which contributes to unequal development across the state [1]. This division results in marked differences in access to resources, infrastructure, and opportunities, creating a complex web of economic disparities. The hilly districts, in particular, face considerable challenges that hinder their progress and integration into the broader economic framework of Manipur.

The hilly districts of Manipur are characterized by a lack of basic infrastructure, including healthcare facilities, educational institutions, and transportation networks, which are more readily available in the valley regions [1]. This disparity in infrastructure directly impacts the quality of life and economic prospects of residents in these areas. Limited access to healthcare services, for instance, results in poorer health outcomes and reduced productivity, while inadequate educational facilities restrict opportunities for skill development and upward mobility. The absence of reliable transportation further isolates these communities, limiting their access to markets, employment, and essential services.

These geographical inequalities are evident in the disparities in access to maternal healthcare services between the hill and valley regions, highlighting the significant impact of geographical location on health outcomes [1]. Women in the hilly districts often face considerable barriers to accessing antenatal care, institutional delivery, and postnatal care, leading to higher maternal and infant mortality rates compared to their counterparts in the valley regions. This disparity underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions to improve healthcare access and outcomes in these underserved areas.

Urban-Rural Divide

Significant disparities in urban poverty rates persist among states in India, with Manipur experiencing high rates of urban poverty despite a national trend of decline [2]. While economic reforms, industrialization, and government initiatives have contributed to reducing urban poverty across the country, these benefits have not been evenly distributed, leaving certain states like Manipur lagging behind. The urban-rural divide exacerbates these disparities, with urban areas often exhibiting different patterns of deprivation compared to rural regions.

Contrasting traditional expectations of rural deprivation, urban areas in Manipur exhibit higher concentrations of deprived people, indicating a shift in the landscape of poverty and inequality [3]. This phenomenon challenges conventional notions of poverty being predominantly a rural issue and highlights the emergence of new forms of urban deprivation. Factors such as migration, lack of employment opportunities, and inadequate access to basic services contribute to the concentration of deprived populations in urban centers.

Improved living conditions in urban areas, such as better transport, healthcare, and education, coexist with rising lifestyle diseases, reflecting the complex interplay between development and health [4]. While urban residents may enjoy greater access to amenities and opportunities, they also face increased exposure to factors contributing to lifestyle-related health problems, such as sedentary lifestyles, unhealthy diets, and environmental pollution. This paradox underscores the need for holistic approaches to urban development that prioritize both economic progress and public health.

Socio-Economic Factors

Inequalities in accessing services are significantly influenced by factors such as mother's education, household wealth, and media exposure [1]. A mother's education level plays a crucial role in shaping health-seeking behaviors and access to healthcare services for herself and her children. Similarly, household wealth determines the ability to afford essential goods and services, including healthcare, education, and nutritious food. Media exposure, particularly television, can influence awareness and knowledge about health practices and available resources.

Urban migration and socio-economic inequalities pose challenges to alleviating urban poverty and achieving sustainable development, requiring comprehensive and inclusive strategies [2]. The influx of migrants into urban areas often strains existing resources and infrastructure, leading to increased competition for jobs, housing, and essential services. Addressing these challenges requires targeted interventions to promote economic inclusion, improve access to affordable housing, and enhance the quality of urban infrastructure.

Caste-based disparities persist in education, employment, and income, affecting socio-economic outcomes in Manipur and highlighting the need for targeted interventions to address historical injustices [5]. Despite constitutional guarantees of equality, marginalized communities continue to face discrimination and exclusion in various spheres of life, limiting their opportunities for social and economic advancement. Overcoming these disparities requires concerted efforts to promote social inclusion, ensure equal access to education and employment, and address systemic barriers that perpetuate inequality.

Income Inequality and Poverty

Poverty Incidence

Manipur experiences high urban poverty rates compared to other states in India, reflecting persistent socio-economic challenges and disparities [2]. Despite national trends of declining urban poverty, Manipur continues to grapple with significant pockets of urban deprivation, indicating the need for targeted interventions and policy measures to address the specific needs of its urban poor. Factors such as lack of employment opportunities, inadequate access to basic services, and social exclusion contribute to the high incidence of urban poverty in the state.

Multidimensional poverty, encompassing health, education, and living standards, affects a significant portion of India's population, including Manipur, highlighting the complexity of deprivation [6]. This approach recognizes that poverty is not merely a matter of income but also involves multiple dimensions of well-being, such as access to healthcare, education, and essential amenities. Addressing multidimensional poverty requires integrated strategies that tackle these interconnected deprivations and promote holistic development.

Targeted interventions are needed to reduce inequality and address the specific needs of vulnerable populations in Manipur, ensuring that development benefits reach those most in need [6]. These interventions should be tailored to the unique contexts and challenges faced by different communities, taking into account factors such as geographical location, caste, gender, and socio-economic status. By focusing on the specific needs of vulnerable populations, these interventions can help to reduce inequality and promote inclusive growth.

Income Distribution

Unequal distribution of income and wealth is a growing concern in developing economies, including those in the North Eastern Hill (NEH) states, necessitating policy measures to promote inclusive growth [7]. This inequality undermines social cohesion, limits opportunities for upward mobility, and can lead to social unrest. Addressing income inequality requires a multi-pronged approach that includes progressive taxation, investments in education and healthcare, and policies to promote fair wages and employment opportunities.

Inter-state disparities in income are evident in the NEH region, with variations demonstrated by Gini ratios, indicating the need for region-specific development strategies [7]. The Gini ratio is a statistical measure of income inequality, with higher values indicating greater inequality. Variations in Gini ratios across the NEH states reflect differences in economic structures, resource endowments, and policy interventions. Addressing these disparities requires tailored development strategies that take into account the unique characteristics of each state.

Non-farm activities contribute to income variation, indicating the importance of diverse economic opportunities in reducing inequality and promoting sustainable livelihoods [7]. Diversifying economic activities beyond traditional agriculture can provide new sources of income and employment, particularly for marginalized communities. Promoting entrepreneurship, skill development, and access to finance can help to unlock the potential of non-farm sectors and reduce income inequality.

Factors Influencing Poverty

Socio-personal factors, policies, and programs related to shifting cultivation significantly influence economic outcomes in the NEH region, requiring a comprehensive and integrated approach [7]. Shifting cultivation, also known as jhum cultivation, is a traditional agricultural practice prevalent in the NEH region. However, its impact on economic outcomes is complex and multifaceted, influenced by factors such as land tenure systems, access to markets, and government policies. A comprehensive and integrated approach is needed to address the challenges and opportunities associated with shifting cultivation.

Household characteristics, such as the head's education level and monthly per capita consumer expenditure, impact deprivation levels in Manipur, highlighting the importance of human capital development [3]. Education empowers individuals to access better employment opportunities, improve their health outcomes, and participate more fully in society. Similarly, higher levels of consumer expenditure reflect greater purchasing power and access to essential goods and services. Investing in education and promoting economic growth can help to reduce deprivation levels and improve overall well-being.

Poverty and social exclusion are intertwined, with poverty acting as both a cause and consequence of social exclusion in communities like Koutruk in Manipur, necessitating integrated interventions [8]. Social exclusion limits access to opportunities and resources, perpetuating cycles of poverty and marginalization. Addressing poverty and social exclusion requires integrated interventions that tackle the underlying drivers of both phenomena, promoting social inclusion, economic empowerment, and access to essential services.

Social Exclusion and Marginalization

Social Exclusion Dimensions

Social exclusion affects access to education, employment, and healthcare services for marginalized communities in Manipur, perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality [8]. Marginalized communities often face systemic barriers that limit their opportunities to participate fully in society, including discrimination, lack of access to resources, and social stigma. These barriers can have profound and lasting impacts on their well-being and life chances.

Physical isolation due to poor transportation and communication, cultural differences, and traditional beliefs contribute to social exclusion, hindering access to essential services and opportunities [8]. Remote and isolated communities often lack access to basic infrastructure and services, such as roads, schools, and healthcare facilities. Cultural differences and traditional beliefs can also create barriers to social inclusion, particularly for marginalized groups. Addressing these challenges requires targeted interventions to improve infrastructure, promote cultural understanding, and empower marginalized communities.

Prejudice and discrimination by dominant ethnic groups, lack of awareness due to illiteracy, and inadequate support from governmental and non-governmental agencies exacerbate exclusion, requiring comprehensive and coordinated efforts [8]. Prejudice and discrimination can manifest in various forms, including social stigma, denial of opportunities, and violence. Lack of awareness and illiteracy further marginalize communities, limiting their ability to access information and resources. Inadequate support from governmental and non-governmental agencies further compounds these challenges, requiring comprehensive and coordinated efforts to address the root causes of exclusion.

Impact on Health

Social exclusion drives health inequalities, directly affecting the health system and indirectly influencing economic and social disparities, leading to poorer health outcomes for marginalized groups [8]. Marginalized communities often experience higher rates of illness, disability, and premature mortality due to factors such as limited access to healthcare, poor living conditions, and exposure to environmental hazards. Addressing these health inequalities requires targeted interventions to improve access to healthcare, promote healthy behaviors, and address the social determinants of health.

High infant and maternal mortality rates and the prevalence of various diseases reflect the poor health status of excluded communities, underscoring the urgent need for targeted healthcare interventions [8]. These indicators serve as stark reminders of the health disparities faced by marginalized communities and the urgent need for action. Targeted healthcare interventions, such as improved access to antenatal care, skilled birth attendants, and postnatal care, can help to reduce infant and maternal mortality rates and improve overall health outcomes.

Addressing social exclusion requires inclusive policies, improved infrastructure, and targeted healthcare interventions to reduce health inequalities and promote well-being [2]. Inclusive policies can help to ensure that all members of society have equal access to opportunities and resources, regardless of their social status or background. Improved infrastructure, such as roads, schools, and healthcare facilities, can enhance access to essential services and promote social inclusion. Targeted healthcare interventions can address the specific health needs of marginalized communities and reduce health inequalities.

Gender Disparities

Globalization amplifies existing inequalities for women in the hill regions of Manipur, affecting their socio-economic, cultural, and political lives, necessitating gender-sensitive policies [9]. While globalization can create new opportunities for women, it can also exacerbate existing inequalities, particularly in marginalized communities. Women in the hill regions of Manipur often face unique challenges due to their geographical location, cultural norms, and limited access to resources. Addressing these challenges requires gender-sensitive policies that promote women's empowerment and participation in all spheres of life.

Women face dual marginalization as women and members of indigenous communities, impacting labor market participation, education, healthcare, and political representation, requiring targeted interventions [9]. Indigenous women often experience multiple forms of discrimination and exclusion due to their gender and ethnicity. This dual marginalization can limit their access to education, employment, healthcare, and political representation, perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality. Targeted interventions are needed to address the specific needs and challenges faced by indigenous women.

Patriarchal norms and the gender divide persist, necessitating gender-sensitive policies to ensure empowerment rather than further marginalization, promoting women's rights and equality [9]. Patriarchal norms and practices continue to limit women's opportunities and perpetuate gender inequality in many societies. Addressing these challenges requires a fundamental shift in attitudes and behaviors, as well as the implementation of gender-sensitive policies that promote women's rights and equality.

Healthcare Access and Disparities

Maternal Healthcare

Geographical divide leads to inequality in accessing maternal healthcare services between hills and valley regions of Manipur, highlighting the need for targeted interventions in underserved areas [1]. The hilly regions often lack adequate healthcare infrastructure, skilled healthcare providers, and transportation facilities, making it difficult for women to access essential maternal healthcare services. This disparity contributes to higher maternal and infant mortality rates in these areas.

Low access to antenatal care (ANC) visits, institutional delivery, and postnatal care (PNC) visits in hilly regions indicates service inequality, requiring improved healthcare infrastructure and outreach programs [1]. Antenatal care visits are essential for monitoring the health of pregnant women and detecting potential complications. Institutional delivery ensures access to skilled birth attendants and emergency obstetric care. Postnatal care visits are crucial for monitoring the health of both mother and child after delivery. Low access to these services in hilly regions reflects systemic inequalities in healthcare provision.

Mother's education, household wealth, and exposure to television are main contributors to inequality in maternal health service utilization, emphasizing the importance of socio-economic empowerment [1]. Educated mothers are more likely to seek and utilize maternal healthcare services. Household wealth enables access to better nutrition, healthcare, and living conditions. Exposure to television can increase awareness about health practices and available resources. Addressing these socio-economic factors can help to reduce inequalities in maternal health service utilization.

Health Insurance Coverage

Health insurance coverage varies significantly across north-eastern states, with Manipur having low coverage, indicating the need for expanded access to financial protection against health risks [10]. Health insurance can help to reduce out-of-pocket healthcare expenditures and improve access to quality healthcare services. However, health insurance coverage remains low in many parts of the north-eastern region, particularly in Manipur, leaving vulnerable populations exposed to financial hardship in the event of illness.

Socioeconomic factors, such as having a bank account and BPL card, play a significant role in health insurance coverage, requiring targeted interventions to reach marginalized populations [10]. Having a bank account facilitates enrollment in health insurance schemes and access to cashless treatment. Similarly, possession of a Below Poverty Line (BPL) card often entitles individuals to subsidized healthcare services. However, many marginalized populations lack access to these socio-economic enablers, limiting their ability to benefit from health insurance coverage.

Low health insurance coverage implies a fall in medical expenses and highlights the need for risk pooling and consolidation of providers, improving efficiency and affordability [10]. With low health insurance coverage, individuals are more likely to delay or forgo necessary medical treatment due to financial constraints. Risk pooling and consolidation of providers can help to reduce healthcare costs and improve efficiency, making healthcare services more affordable and accessible to all.

Public Health Challenges

High prevalence of anaemia among children remains a major health problem, necessitating investment in addressing micronutrient deficiencies, and improving feeding practices [11]. Anaemia, a condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells or haemoglobin in the blood, is a widespread public health problem in India, particularly among children. Addressing micronutrient deficiencies, such as iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid, and improving feeding practices are essential for preventing and treating anaemia.

Air pollution contributes to deaths, disease burden, and reduced life expectancy across Indian states, including those in the Northeast, requiring urgent action to mitigate environmental risks [12]. Air pollution is a major environmental health risk, contributing to a wide range of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The Northeast region of India is particularly vulnerable to air pollution due to factors such as deforestation, industrial emissions, and vehicular traffic. Urgent action is needed to mitigate these environmental risks and protect public health.

There is a high prevalence of diabetes and hypertension among different Muslim populations of Manipur, highlighting the need for targeted health interventions and awareness programs [13]. These findings suggest that certain populations within Manipur may be at higher risk of developing these conditions due to factors such as genetics, lifestyle, and dietary habits. Targeted health interventions and awareness programs are needed to address these specific risk factors and promote early detection and management of diabetes and hypertension.

Education and Human Capital

Educational Disparities

Wastage and stagnation in government primary schools persist due to low enrollment, high dropout rates, and inadequate infrastructure, hindering educational attainment [14]. These challenges undermine the quality of education and limit opportunities for students to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary for success. Addressing these issues requires a multi-faceted approach that focuses on improving access, quality, and relevance of primary education.

Socio-economic disparities, cultural and linguistic factors, and lack of parental involvement contribute to educational challenges, requiring targeted interventions to support disadvantaged students [14]. Students from low-income families often face barriers to education, such as lack of access to resources, poor nutrition, and inadequate healthcare. Cultural and linguistic factors can also create challenges for students from marginalized communities. Lack of parental involvement further compounds these challenges, highlighting the need for targeted interventions to support disadvantaged students and promote parental engagement.

Addressing these issues requires improved access to quality education, enhanced teacher training, and community engagement, creating a supportive learning environment [14]. Improving access to quality education involves building more schools, providing transportation assistance, and reducing school fees. Enhanced teacher training ensures that teachers are equipped with the skills and knowledge necessary to effectively teach and support students. Community engagement fosters a sense of ownership and accountability, creating a supportive learning environment for all students.

Tertiary Education

Progress in tertiary education participation has been made, but gaps exist between rich and poor, rural and urban areas, and disadvantaged groups, requiring targeted interventions to promote equity [15]. While there has been progress in expanding access to tertiary education in India, significant disparities persist between different socio-economic groups. Students from wealthy families, urban areas, and advantaged communities are more likely to participate in tertiary education compared to their counterparts from low-income families, rural areas, and disadvantaged communities.

Inequality in tertiary education is explained by low secondary education completion rates, highlighting the importance of strengthening secondary education pathways [15]. Many students from disadvantaged backgrounds drop out of school before completing secondary education, limiting their eligibility for tertiary education. Addressing this challenge requires strengthening secondary education pathways, providing financial assistance, and offering academic support to help students from disadvantaged backgrounds succeed in secondary school and transition to tertiary education.

Equitable expansion of education is critical, with a need to support qualified youth from low-income families in technical and engineering streams, promoting social mobility [15]. Technical and engineering streams offer promising career opportunities but often require specialized skills and knowledge. Supporting qualified youth from low-income families to pursue these streams can help to promote social mobility and reduce income inequality. This can be achieved through scholarships, mentorship programs, and targeted training initiatives.

Impact on Development

Lack of skilled human capital hinders the socio-economic development of Manipur, perpetuating an undereducated workforce, limiting economic opportunities [14]. A skilled workforce is essential for driving economic growth and innovation. However, the lack of skilled human capital in Manipur limits its ability to attract investment, create jobs, and compete in the global economy. Addressing this challenge requires a concerted effort to improve the quality of education, promote skill development, and create pathways for lifelong learning.

Investing in primary education and addressing wastage and stagnation is crucial for nurturing a generation equipped with necessary skills, promoting long-term development [14]. Primary education provides the foundation for future learning and skill development. Addressing wastage and stagnation in primary schools is essential for ensuring that all children have the opportunity to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in life. This requires a focus on improving access, quality, and relevance of primary education.

Longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing wastage and stagnation in primary schools, informing evidence-based policies [14]. Longitudinal studies track the progress of students over time, providing valuable insights into the factors that contribute to wastage and stagnation. These studies can help to identify effective interventions and inform evidence-based policies to improve primary education outcomes.

Agriculture and Livelihood

Traditional Agroforestry

Shifting cultivation remains a main source of livelihood for forest dwellers in the NEH states, contributing to inter-state disparities, necessitating sustainable alternatives [7]. Shifting cultivation, while a traditional practice, can have negative environmental impacts, such as deforestation and soil erosion. Promoting sustainable alternatives, such as agroforestry and horticulture, can help to improve livelihoods while protecting the environment.

Policies and programs related to shifting cultivation management significantly impact economic outcomes in the region, requiring careful consideration of local contexts [7]. Government policies and programs related to land use, forest management, and agricultural development can have profound impacts on the livelihoods of forest dwellers. It is essential to carefully consider the local contexts and involve local communities in the design and implementation of these policies and programs.

Understanding the role of socio-personal factors and providing equal access to resources can help reduce economic inequality, promoting inclusive development [7]. Socio-personal factors, such as education, health, and social capital, play a crucial role in shaping economic outcomes. Providing equal access to resources, such as land, credit, and technology, can help to level the playing field and promote inclusive development.

Black Rice Farming

Black rice cultivation in the valley region of Manipur is highly profitable compared to normal rice, offering a sustainable income source for farmers [16]. Black rice, a specialty rice variety with high nutritional value, commands a premium price in the market. Its cultivation can provide farmers with a higher income compared to normal rice, improving their livelihoods and promoting economic development.

Lower cultivation costs and high market prices make black rice a sustainable income source for farmers, enhancing economic resilience [16]. Black rice requires less fertilizer and pesticides compared to normal rice, reducing cultivation costs. The high market price of black rice further enhances its profitability, making it a sustainable income source for farmers and enhancing their economic resilience.

Extension agents should encourage black rice production to enhance livelihoods and promote sustainable agriculture, ensuring food security and economic growth [16]. Extension agents play a crucial role in disseminating information about improved agricultural practices and promoting the cultivation of high-value crops like black rice. By encouraging black rice production, extension agents can help to enhance livelihoods, promote sustainable agriculture, and ensure food security and economic growth.

Environmental Factors

Agriculture in Northeastern India faces challenges from floods, environmental degradation, and conflicts over land and resources, requiring integrated management strategies [17]. These challenges threaten agricultural productivity, food security, and livelihoods in the region. Integrated management strategies that address these interconnected challenges are needed to promote sustainable agricultural development.

Gender dynamics in farming and forest use affect livelihood diversification and agro-biodiversity conservation, requiring gender-sensitive approaches [17]. Women play a crucial role in agriculture and forest use in Northeastern India. However, their contributions are often undervalued and their access to resources is limited. Gender-sensitive approaches that recognize and support women's roles in agriculture and forest use are needed to promote livelihood diversification and agro-biodiversity conservation.

Community-based approaches to natural resource management are crucial for sustainable development, empowering local communities and promoting environmental stewardship [17]. Local communities have a deep understanding of their environment and are often best placed to manage natural resources sustainably. Community-based approaches that empower local communities and promote environmental stewardship are essential for achieving sustainable development.

Impact of Government Policies and Interventions

Decentralized Governance

Decentralized governance through Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) can ensure effective and equitable service delivery at the grassroots level, empowering local communities [18]. PRIs are local self-government institutions that play a crucial role in planning and implementing development programs at the village level. By empowering local communities to participate in decision-making, PRIs can ensure that services are delivered effectively and equitably.

Locally elected representatives are better positioned to provide services according to the electorate's preferences, enhancing accountability and responsiveness [18]. Locally elected representatives have a better understanding of the needs and priorities of their constituents. This enables them to provide services that are more responsive to local needs and enhances their accountability to the electorate.

Effective and sustainable service delivery by panchayats can improve equity for disadvantaged groups, including SCs, STs, women, and minorities, promoting inclusive development [18]. PRIs can play a crucial role in promoting equity for disadvantaged groups by ensuring that they have equal access to services and opportunities. This requires targeted interventions to address the specific needs of these groups and promote their participation in decision-making.

Social Welfare Schemes

Government schemes aim to enhance food security and bridge calorie and nutrient gaps through programs like the Public Distribution System and Integrated Child Development Services, addressing malnutrition [19]. These schemes provide subsidized food grains and nutritional supplements to vulnerable populations, helping to improve their food security and nutritional status. However, effective implementation and monitoring are essential to ensure that these benefits reach those who need them most.

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme provides work resources in rural areas during non-agriculture seasons, enhancing livelihood security and reducing poverty [19]. This scheme guarantees 100 days of wage employment to rural households, providing a safety net during periods of unemployment. It also contributes to building rural infrastructure and promoting sustainable development.

The Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan aims to improve sanitation facilities and usage, addressing underlying determinants of undernutrition, and promoting public health [19]. This campaign promotes the construction and use of toilets, reducing open defecation and improving sanitation. This can help to reduce the spread of infectious diseases and improve overall public health.

Policy Effectiveness

Political interference, inadequate financial resources, and bureaucratic inefficiencies hinder the effectiveness of PRIs, requiring systemic reforms [20]. Political interference can undermine the autonomy and effectiveness of PRIs. Inadequate financial resources limit their ability to implement development programs. Bureaucratic inefficiencies can lead to delays and mismanagement of resources. Addressing these challenges requires systemic reforms to strengthen PRIs and improve their governance.

Policy interventions and capacity-building measures are needed to enhance the role of PRIs in promoting equitable development, empowering local communities [20]. Policy interventions can include providing PRIs with greater autonomy, increasing their financial resources, and strengthening their capacity for planning and implementation. Capacity-building measures can include training for elected representatives and officials, promoting community participation, and improving transparency and accountability.

Digital interventions can improve transparency and governance, while increased financial autonomy strengthens the capacity of local representatives, enhancing service delivery [20]. Digital technologies can be used to improve transparency and accountability in PRIs, making information about development programs and budgets more accessible to the public. Increased financial autonomy empowers local representatives to make decisions about how resources are allocated, enhancing their ability to deliver services effectively.

Drug Use and HIV Prevalence

Substance Use Patterns

Substance use, including alcohol, smoking, and smokeless tobacco, is a serious health hazard in Northeast India, requiring targeted prevention and treatment programs [21]. The high prevalence of substance use in Northeast India poses significant risks to public health and socio-economic development. Targeted prevention and treatment programs are needed to address this challenge and reduce the harm associated with substance use.

Substance use is significantly higher in NEI compared to the rest of the country, with a high prevalence among adolescents, indicating a need for early intervention strategies [21]. The early initiation of substance use among adolescents is particularly concerning, as it can lead to long-term health problems and social consequences. Early intervention strategies are needed to prevent substance use among adolescents and promote healthy behaviors.

Substance use plateaus in the 25-49 age group before declining, with lower likelihood among those with higher education and wealth, highlighting the role of socio-economic factors [21]. This pattern suggests that socio-economic factors play a significant role in shaping substance use behaviors. Addressing these underlying socio-economic factors can help to reduce substance use and promote better health outcomes.

HIV Transmission

Armed conflicts and instability can increase the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and HIV transmission, posing a threat to public health [22]. Armed conflicts and instability disrupt social structures, displace populations, and create conditions that increase the risk of STI and HIV transmission. These conditions include increased sexual violence, transactional sex, and injecting drug use.

Poverty, powerlessness, and social instability exacerbate transmission in complex emergencies, requiring comprehensive interventions to address vulnerabilities [22]. Poverty, powerlessness, and social instability create conditions that increase vulnerability to STI and HIV transmission. Comprehensive interventions that address these underlying vulnerabilities are needed to prevent the spread of infection.

Refugees are highly vulnerable to predation, rape, and transactional sex, increasing the risk of HIV transmission, requiring targeted protection and support [22]. Refugees are often displaced from their homes and communities, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. Targeted protection and support are needed to prevent sexual violence, exploitation, and HIV transmission among refugees.

Interventions and Prevention

Targeted interventions are required to minimize HIV transmission, especially among widowed/divorced/separated individuals and injecting drug users, addressing specific risk factors [23]. These interventions should focus on providing access to HIV testing and counseling, promoting safer sex practices, and providing harm reduction services for injecting drug users. Addressing these specific risk factors can help to minimize HIV transmission and improve the health outcomes of vulnerable populations.

Harm reduction programs, including needle exchange and opioid substitution therapies, are essential for preventing HIV spread among drug users, reducing injecting-related risks [22]. Needle exchange programs provide sterile needles and syringes to injecting drug users, reducing the risk of HIV transmission through shared needles. Opioid substitution therapies, such as methadone and buprenorphine, help to reduce drug cravings and withdrawal symptoms, making it easier for drug users to abstain from injecting drugs.

Addressing the underlying socio-economic factors and promoting awareness are crucial for preventing explosive IDU-related epidemics, requiring a multi-faceted approach [22]. Addressing the underlying socio-economic factors that contribute to drug use, such as poverty, unemployment, and social exclusion, is essential for preventing explosive IDU-related epidemics. Promoting awareness about the risks of drug use and HIV transmission can also help to prevent the spread of infection.

Globalization and Economic Change

Impact on Women

Globalization amplifies existing inequalities for women in the hill regions of Manipur, affecting their socio-economic, cultural, and political lives, necessitating gender-sensitive policies [9]. While globalization can create new opportunities for women, it can also exacerbate existing inequalities, particularly in marginalized communities. Women in the hill regions of Manipur often face unique challenges due to their geographical location, cultural norms, and limited access to resources. Addressing these challenges requires gender-sensitive policies that promote women's empowerment and participation in all spheres of life.

Women face dual marginalization as women and members of indigenous communities, impacting labor market participation, education, healthcare, and political representation, requiring targeted interventions [9]. Indigenous women often experience multiple forms of discrimination and exclusion due to their gender and ethnicity. This dual marginalization can limit their access to education, employment, healthcare, and political representation, perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality. Targeted interventions are needed to address the specific needs and challenges faced by indigenous women.

Patriarchal norms and the gender divide persist, necessitating gender-sensitive policies to ensure empowerment rather than further marginalization, promoting women's rights and equality [9]. Patriarchal norms and practices continue to limit women's opportunities and perpetuate gender inequality in many societies. Addressing these challenges requires a fundamental shift in attitudes and behaviors, as well as the implementation of gender-sensitive policies that promote women's rights and equality.

Economic Reforms

Economic reforms and industrialization have contributed to the decline in urban poverty in India, but disparities persist, requiring inclusive policies [2]. While economic reforms and industrialization have generated economic growth and created new employment opportunities, these benefits have not been evenly distributed, leaving certain populations behind. Inclusive policies are needed to ensure that all members of society benefit from economic growth.

The Green Revolution, economic liberalization, and expansion of the IT sector have played key roles in reducing poverty levels, but their benefits have not been universally shared [2]. These economic transformations have created new opportunities for some, but they have also led to increased inequality and social exclusion for others. Targeted interventions are needed to address these disparities and ensure that the benefits of economic growth are shared more equitably.

Government interventions like Aadhaar-linked subsidies and direct benefit transfers have effectively reduced poverty, but challenges persist due to rising urban migration, requiring comprehensive strategies [2]. While these interventions have been successful in reducing poverty, they are not sufficient to address the complex challenges posed by rising urban migration. Comprehensive strategies that address the root causes of poverty and promote economic inclusion are needed to ensure sustainable development.

Digitalization of MSMEs

The COVID-19 pandemic has created challenges and prospects for Digital MSMEs in Manipur, highlighting the need for support and adaptation [24]. The pandemic has disrupted supply chains, reduced demand, and forced many businesses to close. However, it has also accelerated the adoption of digital technologies, creating new opportunities for MSMEs to reach customers and operate more efficiently.

Digitalization supports India initiatives and Business Development Services, helping MSMEs expand and thrive, fostering economic growth [24]. Digital technologies can help MSMEs to improve their productivity, reduce costs, and access new markets. Business Development Services can provide MSMEs with the training and support they need to adopt and utilize digital technologies effectively.

Well-designed policies and efforts to improve digital and financial literacy are crucial for bridging the growth diffusion of MSMEs, promoting inclusive growth [24]. Many MSMEs lack the digital and financial literacy skills they need to take advantage of digital technologies. Well-designed policies and targeted training programs can help to bridge this gap and promote inclusive growth.

Regional Development and Convergence

Look East Policy

India's Look East Policy (LEP) has resulted in regional income convergence in North-Eastern India, promoting economic integration [25]. The Look East Policy, now known as the Act East Policy, aims to promote economic and cultural ties between India and Southeast Asian countries. This policy has led to increased investment, trade, and infrastructure development in North-Eastern India, contributing to regional income convergence.

Policy changes and reforms initiated in the 1990s have contributed to this convergence, highlighting the impact of government initiatives [25]. These policy changes and reforms have created a more favorable environment for investment and economic growth in North-Eastern India. However, further efforts are needed to address the remaining challenges and promote sustainable development.

Targeted market-oriented policies can reduce inequality and promote inclusive development, benefiting marginalized communities [25]. Market-oriented policies that promote competition, innovation, and entrepreneurship can help to create new opportunities for economic growth and reduce inequality. Targeted interventions are needed to ensure that these benefits reach marginalized communities and promote inclusive development.

State-Level Disparities

Significant disparities exist among states in urban poverty rates, with Manipur having high rates, requiring targeted interventions [2]. The high urban poverty rates in Manipur reflect persistent socio-economic challenges and disparities. Targeted interventions are needed to address the specific needs of the urban poor and promote economic inclusion.

Regional variations in multidimensional poverty highlight the need for target-based interventions to reduce inequality, addressing specific deprivations [6]. The multidimensional poverty index captures multiple dimensions of deprivation, such as health, education, and living standards. Target-based interventions that address these specific deprivations are needed to reduce inequality and improve overall well-being.

States like Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal account for a significant share of India's poor population, requiring focused attention [6]. These states face significant challenges in reducing poverty and improving human development outcomes. Focused attention and targeted interventions are needed to address these challenges and promote sustainable development.

Social Development Index

Regional disparities in social development are evident across states and union territories in India, highlighting the need for equitable policies [27]. The Social Development Index (SDI) captures multiple dimensions of social development, such as health, education, and living standards. Regional disparities in SDI scores reflect differences in access to services and opportunities. Equitable policies are needed to address these disparities and promote social inclusion.

Kerala is the best-performing state in terms of social development, while significant disparities exist at the district level, requiring localized interventions [27]. Kerala has achieved remarkable progress in social development due to its strong focus on education, healthcare, and social welfare. However, significant disparities persist at the district level, requiring localized interventions to address specific needs and challenges.

The Social Development Index (SDI) can be used to assess progress and identify areas needing improvement, informing evidence-based policies [27]. The SDI provides a valuable tool for tracking progress in social development and identifying areas where further efforts are needed. It can also be used to inform evidence-based policies and interventions to improve social development outcomes.

Strategies for Reducing